Chapter 6: The Rise of Christianity in the Roman Empire

Setting the Stage

Religion played a central role in Roman society, but the worship of Roman gods was impersonal and often practiced with little emotion.
As the empire grew, a new religion called Christianity emerged, born as a movement within Judaism, and it emphasized a personal relationship between God and people, which attracted many Romans.
Judea, where Jesus would teach, came under Roman control around 63\ \text{B.C.}; Rome then made Judea a province. A number of Jews hoped for independence and believed that a savior, the Messiah, would restore the kingdom. Roughly two decades after the beginning of Roman rule, many believed such a savior had arrived.

The Life and Teachings of Jesus

Jesus of Nazareth: date uncertain, but historians estimate his birth sometime around 6\text{–}4\ \text{B.C.}; born in Bethlehem, Judea; raised in Nazareth in northern Judea; baptized by John the Baptist; worked as a carpenter; at about age 30 began his public ministry that lasted about 3\text{ years}, during which he preached, taught, performed good works, and reportedly performed miracles.
Core Jewish roots: Jesus’s teachings drew on Jewish monotheism (belief in one God), loving others, and the Ten Commandments, while stressing a personal relationship with God.
Central message: Jesus emphasized a personal, intimate relationship with God and taught ethical behavior toward others.
Primary source in this section: the Gospels, the first four books of the New Testament, are the main sources about Jesus’s life and message.
Public ministry: Jesus traveled from town to town, attracting large crowds; his message appealed especially to the poor because he ignored wealth and social status and preached blessing for the meek (and other beatitudes).
Luke 6:27–31 (primary source): Love your enemies, do good to those who hate you, bless those who curse you, pray for those who mistreat you; if someone strikes you on the cheek, turn the other cheek; if someone takes your coat, give them your shirt as well; give to everyone who asks; do for others what you want them to do for you.

Jesus's Death

Jesus's growing popularity concerned Roman leaders; when he visited Jerusalem around A.D.\ 29, crowds greeted him as the Messiah.
Pontius Pilate, the Roman governor, accused Jesus of defying Roman authority and ordered his crucifixion.
Crucifixion: Jesus was nailed to a cross to die; his body was placed in a tomb.
Resurrection and Ascension: the Gospels say Jesus’s body was gone after three days, he appeared to his followers, and then ascended into heaven.
Nomenclature: Jesus came to be known as Jesus Christ; Christos (Greek) means “messiah” or “savior.” The name Christianity was derived from Christ.

A Christianity Spreads Through the Empire

Early followers were Jews, and Christianity did not initially contradict Jewish law; over time, Gentile converts joined, expanding the movement beyond Judaism.
The Pax Romana provided safe travel and exchange of ideas; common languages, Latin and Greek, helped spread the message.
Paul the Apostle: a Jew who had not met Jesus and initially opposed Christianity; on the road to Damascus, he reportedly had a vision of Christ and spent the rest of his life spreading and interpreting Jesus’s teachings.
Paul’s contributions: wrote influential Epistles to various groups; taught that Jesus was the Son of God who died for humanity’s sins; argued that converts were not obligated to follow Jewish law; emphasized the universal nature of Christianity beyond Judaism.
The spread benefited from Roman infrastructure and relative stability of the era, which facilitated travel and communication across the Mediterranean.

Jewish Rebellion and the Diaspora

Jewish revolts against Rome: in A.D.\ 66, Jews rose against Roman rule; in A.D.\ 70, Romans destroyed Jerusalem and the Temple; Masada held out until A.D.\ 73. Approximately a half million Jews were killed during these conflicts.
Diaspora (dispersion): centuries of Jewish exile followed the destruction of the Temple and Jerusalem; Jews fled to many parts of the world, including Europe.
In the 1100s, many European Jews were expelled from their homes and scattered to other regions like Turkey, Palestine, Syria, and Poland.
Jewish statelessness persisted until the creation of the modern state of Israel in 1948.

Persecution of the Christians

Christians were persecuted because they refused to worship Roman gods, which Roman rulers often interpreted as disloyalty to Roman rule.
Christians were scapegoats for political and economic troubles and faced exile, imprisonment, or execution.
Martyrs: Christians and even some non-Christians viewed persecuted Christians as martyrs—people willing to sacrifice their lives for their beliefs.

A World Religion: Why Christianity Spread

The movement gained strength for several reasons:
- Embraced all people: men, women, enslaved persons, the poor, and nobles; promoted social inclusivity.
- Gave hope to the powerless and promised eternal life after death.
- Offered a personal relationship with a loving God.
- Appealed to people who were repelled by the extravagances of imperial Rome and the empire’s religious rituals.

Spread of Christianity in the Roman World to A.D. 500

Geography and growth: by A.D.\ 325, Christianity was widespread in Christian areas outlined on maps; by A.D.\ 500, additional Christian areas had formed beyond earlier boundaries; the map shows the boundary of the Roman Empire by A.D.\ 395 and key cities such as Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem.
Major hubs include Judea, Galilee, Syria, Anatolia, Greece, Italy, Gaul, Spain, and parts of Britain, as Christianity spread through these regions.

Constantine Accepts Christianity

In A.D.\ 312, Constantine fought rivals for leadership of Rome; before the battle at Milvian Bridge, he prayed for divine help and reportedly saw an image of the cross in the sky; he ordered Christians’ symbol on his soldiers’ shields and won the battle.
Edict of Milan (313): Christianity was legalized and tolerated by the empire.
By A.D.\ 380, Christianity became the empire’s official religion.

Early Christian Church

Church hierarchy emerged similar to the imperial structure: local priests led communities; bishops supervised several churches.
Peter’s role: tradition holds Peter traveled to Rome and became the first bishop there; Jesus referred to Peter as the “rock” on which the Church would be built; bishops traced their authority to Peter, and the bishop of Rome was seen as the leader of the whole Church (the pope).

A Single Voice: Creed and Canon

Disagreements about beliefs led to efforts to establish a single standard of belief; beliefs that contradicted core teachings were labeled heresy.
The New Testament: compiled with the four Gospels and Epistles; the Old Testament (Hebrew Bible) was incorporated as part of Christian Scripture.
Council of Nicaea (325): produced the Nicene Creed, defining the basic beliefs of the Church to settle theological disputes.

The Fathers of the Church and Augustine

Fathers of the Church: influential early Christian writers who shaped doctrine.
Augustine (bishop of Hippo, 396): taught that humans require God’s grace to be saved, and that grace comes through belonging to the Church and receiving the sacraments.
Augustine’s The City of God: written after Rome was plundered in the fifth century; argued the fate of earthly cities is not as important as the heavenly City of God, which cannot be destroyed.
Key extract (Augustine, The City of God): contrasts two cities—one guided by human standards, the other by God’s will; two societies of human beings destined to eternal outcomes.

The Decline and Continued Influence

While the Roman Empire weakened due to internal and external pressures, Christianity persisted and later influenced the development of medieval Europe, preserving and propagating religious and ethical ideas.

Notes and Review Prompts (Reflection and Study)

Terms to know: apostle, bishop, pope, Peter, Paul, Diaspora, Constantine, Pax Romana, Messiah, Christ, Nicene Creed, Augustine.
Key concepts: monotheism; personal relationship with God; martyrdom; conversion; church hierarchy; canon; creed; universalism; City of God vs City of Man.
Critical thinking prompts:
- How might Christianity have developed if it had arisen outside the Roman Empire?
- Compare Paul’s and Constantine’s roles in spreading Christianity and argue which contributed more to its spread and why.
- Why did Roman rulers oppose the rise of a new religion, and how did this opposition shape early Christian identity?

Primary Source and Further Reading (references)

Luke 6:27–31 (summarized in this text as an ethical teaching of Jesus).
Augustine, City of God (discussion of the two cities and the fate of earthly Rome).

Chronology Snapshot (selected dates)

63\ \text{B.C.} – Rome takes control of Judea as a province.
6\–4\ \text{B.C.} – Estimated birth window for Jesus.
A.D.\ 29 – Jesus’s crucifixion and resurrection events.
A.D.\ 66{}70 – Jewish rebellion; destruction of Jerusalem and the Temple; roughly 5\times 10^{5} Jews killed.
A.D.\ 73 – Masada falls.
A.D.\ 313 – Edict of Milan legalizes Christianity.
A.D.\ 325 – Council of Nicaea; Nicene Creed established.
A.D.\ 380 – Christianity becomes the empire’s official religion.
A.D.\ 396 – Augustine becomes bishop of Hippo; The City of God written later.
1948 – Creation of the modern state of Israel.