GOD

Philosophy of Religion Key Questions

• Are there good reasons for concluding God does or does not exist?

• What is the nature of God?

• If God does exist, what does that mean for us?

Traditional Concept of God

• All-knowing (omniscient): God possesses complete and unlimited knowledge, understanding all things past, present, and future.

• All-good, all-powerful (omnipotent): God is inherently good and capable of doing anything that is logically possible, including the creation and sustenance of the universe.

• Immortal: God exists beyond time and is not subject to the limitations of mortality.

• Creator of the universe: God is seen as the prime mover and cause of all that exists, establishing the foundation for existence itself.

Arguments for the Existence of God

• Cosmological Arguments: These arguments assert that the existence of the universe necessitates a cause, which can only be identified as God. Variants include the Kalam Cosmological Argument, which emphasizes the beginning of the universe and posits that something must have initiated this existence.

• Ontological Argument: This logical argument, first formulated by Anselm of Canterbury, suggests that understanding God as a being than which no greater can be conceived leads to the necessity of God’s existence; if God is conceptualized as existing in the mind, He must also exist in reality to align with His definition.

• Design (Teleological) Arguments: These argue from the complexity and order observed in nature, drawing a parallel between natural phenomena and human design, suggesting that such intricacy implies a supreme designer (God) responsible for its creation.

Major Argument Against the Existence of God

• Argument from Evil: This argument posits that the presence of gratuitous evil and suffering in the world contradicts the notion of an omnipotent, omniscient, and benevolent God. Philosophers like Epicurus have raised the problem of evil to question the compatibility of these divine attributes with the observable state of the world.

The Ontological Argument: Anselm and Gaunilo

• Anselm’s Position: Anselm argued that understanding God as the most perfect being inherently implies His existence; if one could conceive a God that does not exist, that being would not be the greatest conceivable being.

• Gaunilo’s Critique: Gaunilo countered Anselm’s claim by using an analogy of a perfect island, arguing that just because one can conceive of a perfect island does not necessitate its existence.

• Anselm’s defense: He asserted that islands are finite and can be imagined not to exist, unlike God, who is defined as infinite and necessary.

• Kant’s Contribution: Kant critiqued the ontological argument, contending that existence is not a predicate or a property that enhances the concept of a being, and thus cannot be used to argue for God’s existence.

The Cosmological Argument: Aquinas

• Key Points: Aquinas postulated that every event must have a cause, leading to the conclusion that an infinite regress of causes is impossible. Thus, there must be a first cause, identified as God. His Five Ways provide evidence for the necessity of a prime mover or first cause.

• Criticisms: David Hume questioned the ability to establish premises logically or observationally, suggesting that even if the argument is sound, it may not effectively lead to the conclusion of God’s existence.

The Design Argument: William Paley

• Analogy of the Watch: Paley’s famous analogy asserts that discovering a watch indicates an intelligent designer due to its complexity and functionality. This leads to the conclusion that the natural world, with its intricate designs, points to an intelligent creator.

• Criticisms: Critics argue that while complexity suggests design, it does not necessarily confirm a traditional concept of God, and they emphasize the need for further exploration of this argument.

Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion: David Hume

• Main Characters:

  • Cleanthes: Advocates for the design argument by comparing the universe to human-made machines, asserting that complex phenomena necessitate an intelligent cause.

  • Philo: Provides a counterargument, questioning the analogy and pointing out the dissimilarities between the universe and man-made objects. He challenges how one can logically infer a creator without direct observation of creation.

Points on God as Creator

• Like Cause Argument: A true designer would differ from traditional views of God, suggesting that a creator being might not be perfect and could be mortal or corporeal.

• Multiplicity of Creators: This perspective raises questions about the possibility of multiple creators or origins rather than a single God.

• Biological Analogy: Suggests that the world may resemble a plant instead of a machine, indicating more natural, self-organizing processes rather than intelligent design.

The Problem of Evil

• Life is filled with suffering—hunger, pain, fear—which raises questions about the compatibility of these experiences with a God described as all-good, knowing, and powerful.

Cleanthes and Philo on Happiness and Misery

• Cleanthes' Defense: Argues that the general prevalence of happiness outweighs instances of misery in the world, suggesting a benign creator.

• Philo’s Response: Contests this by emphasizing that pervasive suffering weighs more heavily on human experience, countering the argument for God's benevolence.

Pascal’s Wager

• Argues for the rationality of belief in God as a bet on eternal consequences: belief could yield eternal bliss, while disbelief risks eternal damnation. The wager suggests that if God does not exist, belief carries negligible costs compared to the potential rewards.

Leibniz on the Problem of Evil

• Acknowledged suffering exists but conflicts with God’s nature as benevolent. He proposed that our world may be the "best of all possible worlds," despite the existence of evil, seeking to reconcile belief and observed suffering.

Swinburne's Free Will Defense

• Key Claim: Argues that the existence of evil does not contradict God’s existence; rather, it underscores the value of free will which brings a meaningful dimension to human life.

• Moral Evil: Attributed to deliberate wrong actions by humans, emphasizing individual responsibility and moral agency.

• Natural Evil: Posits that natural suffering can lead to valuable knowledge and choices, providing context for human experience even if animals lack free will.

Thought Experiment by Swinburne

• Considers two hypothetical lives: one filled with pleasure (solitary) and the other filled with pain yet positively impacting others. The finding suggests that a painful life with interpersonal value may be preferable, highlighting the significance of relationships and impacts over mere pleasure.

Desires of the Heart: Eleonore Stump

• Discusses the limitations of theodicies in justifying personal suffering tied to the loss of deeply held desires, illustrating the struggle to reconcile faith with individual experiences of anguish.

Blackburn on Pascal’s Wager

• Argues against Pascal’s Wager by questioning whether God values reason over blind faith and highlights the diversity of spiritual beliefs, suggesting consideration beyond a binary choice of belief or disbelief.

Zagzebski’s Assessment of Pascal’s Wager

• Tackles objections to the wager, specifically the many gods objection, and examines motivations driven by self-interest, suggesting that belief cannot simply be chosen based solely on potential outcomes.

The Problem of Hell: Marilyn Adams

• Discusses the moral and existential implications of eternal punishment, questioning how an all-good God could create a scenario where humans face perpetual suffering, especially given their inherent imperfections.

Faith and Reason: Michael Scriven

• Contrasts faith-based and reason-based beliefs, raising questions about whether faith leads to a justified truth and the challenges inherent in ensuring belief aligns with rational evidence.

The Hiddenness of God: McKim

• Disadvantages of God’s Hiddenness: Points out that non-belief may be attributed to individual shortcomings due to God’s inaccessibility, suggesting that the lack of divine visibility can lead to reduced worship and potentiated social conflicts.

• Conclusion: Posits that if God exists, the significance of belief may be diminished in the grand scheme.

God and Forgiveness: Anne Minas

• Questions the logical possibilities of forgiveness issued from a perfect God, examining the complexities of moral judgments and implications for inherent human imperfections regarding offenses.

God and Morality: Steven Cahn

• Challenges the assumption that God’s existence provides absolute solutions to all moral dilemmas, exploring how concepts of moral laws and actions, such as murder, require foundations beyond divine decree.

Philosophy of Religion: Key Questions and Concepts

I. Descartes, "2nd Meditation"

1. Difference Between Materialism and Dualism

   • Materialism: Only physical matter exists.

   • Dualism: Both material (body) and immaterial (mind) substances exist.

2. How Descartes Knows He Exists

   • Through the phrase "Cogito, ergo sum" (I think, therefore I am), emphazising self-awareness.

3. Thinking Being Argument

   • Actions of doubting and understanding affirm his existence as a conscious being.

4. Wax Argument

   • Demonstrates that physical properties change while our understanding remains, establishing that the mind comprehends better than the body.

II. Ryle, "The Ghost in the Machine"

1. Category Mistake

   • Ryle uses the concept of category mistakes to argue that mind is not a separate entity from the body, challenging dualism.

III. Taylor, "Body and Soul"

1. Reasoning Leading to Dualism

   • Claims that a logical inference about separable identity leads to dualism.

2. Better Reasoning

   • Advocates for a more integrated approach, emphasizing unity over separation.

IV. Nagel, "What Is It Like to Be a Bat?"

1. Nagel's Argument

   • Discusses subjective experience; states that consciousness cannot be fully understood even if we have the physical basis for it (e.g., how a bat experiences the world).

V. Paley, "Natural Theology"

1. Argument for God's Existence

   • Utilizes the design argument, asserting that complexity in nature implies an intelligent designer (God).

VI. Swinburne, "Why God Allows Evil"

1. Goods Outweighing Evil

   • Moral growth, free will, and the ability to appreciate good.

2. Natural Evil in Relation to Free Will

   • Natural evil can lead to moral choices and personal growth, thus fitting with the free will defense.

VII. Pascal's Wager

1. Explanation of Pascal’s Wager

   • Argues for belief in God as a rational bet; if God exists, belief leads to eternal happiness; if not, minimal loss.

2. Blackburn's Criticism

   • Critiques it for being overly simplistic and rooted in self-interest rather than true belief.

3. Zagzebski's Defense

   • Suggests belief must stem from genuine faith rather than calculated outcomes.

VIII. Scriven, "Faith and Reason"

1. Critique of Faith as an Alternative Route to Truth

   • Argues that faith lacks the justificatory power that reason provides.

IX. McKim, "The Hiddenness of God"

1. Problems Stemming from God’s Hiddenness

   • Suggests that non-belief results from God's inaccessibility, leading to difficulties in faith and worship.

X. Hume, Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion

1. Objections by Philo to Design Argument

   • Critiques the analogy between human-made items and the universe, noting dissimilarities.

2. Points on Argument from Evil

   • Emphasizes that the presence of evil highlights challenges to belief in a fully benevolent deity.

XI. Stump, "The Desires of the Heart"

1. Meaning of "Desires of the Heart"

   • Refers to deep emotional and spiritual yearnings; applies them to the problem of evil by showing how personal suffering contradicts faith.

XII. Adams, "The Problem of Hell"

1. Problem of Hell According to Adams

   • Questions how an all-good God permits eternal suffering, relying on human nature's imperfection as a foundational concern.

XIII. Minas, "God and Forgiveness"

1. Position on God and Forgiveness

   • Argues that God's nature exemplifies true forgiveness, raising implications about divine compassion versus human limitations.

XIV. Cahn, "God and Morality"

1. Belief in God and Murder

   • Claims that divine existence does not inherently define moral actions; moral laws should exist independently of divine commands.

2. Ten Commandments and Morality

   • Argues that moral rightness exists prior to divine commands, asserting God commands them because of their inherent morality.

XV. Analytical Questions

1. Cosmological Argument and Objection

   • Explains that everything has a cause leading to a first cause (God); objection might revolve around infinite regress being possible.

2. Ontological Argument and Critique

   • Defines God as the greatest conceivable being; critique could involve arguments against existence as a property.

3. Design Argument and Notable Objection

   • Complexity in nature suggests a designer; an objection might challenge the analogy of design to human-made artifacts.

4. Problem of Evil and Free Will Defense

   • The existence of evil contradicts a benevolent deity; Swinburne argues that free will allows for moral choice, thus justifying some evils.

5. Turing Test and Searle's Argument

   • Turing test argues that machines can think if they appear to; Searle counters this, arguing that understanding requires more than mimicking behaviors.