AP World 18.4

Political change from 1600 to 1750 was complicated, even as religious strife gradually calmed. A tradition of strong monarchy developed in France and elsewhere, greatly adding to the functions of the central government. But in Britain and Holland a different emphasis emerged, providing a strong parliamentary check on royal power. Both traditions proved significant in shaping Europe's political future. More effective central governments and better-trained bureaucrats helped Europe catch up to political forms that had been developed earlier in countries like China. At the same time, growing suggestions of what would come to be called the nation-state provided a new element in politics that would later spread to other parts of the world. 

Absolute Monarchies 

New political currents took shape along with the rise of science, and at times the two trends connected. The feudal monarchy-the balance between king and nobles-that had defined Western politics since the late postclassical period finally came undone in the 17th century. In most countries, after the pas- sions of religious wars finally cooled, monarchs gained new powers, curtailing the tradition of noble pressure or revolt. At the same time, more ambitious military organization, in states that defined war as a central purpose, required more careful administration and improved tax collection. 

The model for this new pattern was France, now the West's largest and most powerful nation. French kings steadily built up their power in the 17th century. They stopped convening the medieval parliament and passed laws as they saw fit, although some provincial councils remained strong. They blew up the castles of dissident nobles, another sign that gunpowder was undercutting the military basis of feudalism. They appointed a growing bureaucracy drawn from the merchants and lawyers. They sent direct representatives to the outlying provinces. They professionalized the army, giving more formal training to officers, providing uniforms and support, and creating military hospitals and pensions. 

So great was the power of the monarch, in fact, that the French system became known as absolute monarchy. Its most glorious royal proponent, King Louis XIV, summed up its principles succinctly: "I am the state." Louis became a major patron of the arts, giving government a cultural role beyond any previous levels in the West. His academies not only encouraged science but also worked to standardize the French language. A sumptuous palace at Versailles was used to keep nobles busy with social functions so that they could not interfere with affairs of state. 

Using the new bureaucratic structure, Louis and his ministers developed additional functions for the state. They reduced internal tariffs, which acted as barriers to trade, and created new, state-run manufacturing. The reigning economic theory, mercantilism, held that governments should promote the internal economy to improve tax revenues and to limit imports from other nations, lest money be lost to enemy states. Therefore, absolute monarchs such as Louis XIV set tariffs on imported goods, tried to encourage their merchant fleets, and sought colonies to provide raw materials and a guaran- teed market for manufactured goods produced at home. 

The basic structure of absolute monarchy developed in other states besides France (Map 18.2). Spain tried to imitate French principles in the 18th century, which resulted in efforts to tighten control over its Latin American colonies. However, the most important spread of absolute monarchy occurred in the central European states that were gaining in importance. A series of kings in Prussia, in eastern Germany, built a strong army and bureaucracy. They promoted economic activity and began to develop a state-sponsored school system. Habsburg kings in Austria-Hungary, although still officially rulers of the Holy Roman empire, concentrated increasingly on developing a stronger monarchy in the lands under their direct control. The power of these Habsburg rulers increased after they pushed back the last Turk- ish invasion threat late in the 17th century and then added the kingdom of Hungary to their domains. Most absolute monarchs saw a strong military as a key political goal, and many hoped for territo- rial expansion. Louis XIV used his strong state as the basis for a series of wars from the 1680s onward. The wars yielded some new territory for France but finally attracted an opposing alliance system that blocked further advance. Prussian kings, although long cautious in exposing their proud military to the risk of major war, turned in the 18th century to a series of conflicts that won new territory. 

Parliamentary Monarchies 

Britain and the Netherlands, both growing commercial and colonial powers, stood apart from the trend toward absolute monarchy in the 17th century. They emphasized the role of the central state, but they also built parliamentary regimes in which the kings shared power with representatives selected by the nobility and upper urban classes. The English civil wars produced a final political settlement in 1688 and 1689 (the so-called Glorious Revolution) in which parliament won basic sovereignty over the king. The English parliament no longer depended on the king to convene, because regular sessions were scheduled. Its rights to approve taxation allowed it to monitor or initiate most major policies. 

Furthermore, a growing body of political theory arose in the 17th century that built on these parliamentary ideas. John Locke and others argued that power came from the people, not from a divine right to royal rule. Monarchs should therefore be restrained by institutions that protected the public interest, including certain general rights to freedom and property. A right of revolution could legitimately oppose unjust rule. 

Overall, western Europe developed important diversity in political forms, between absolute mon- archy and a new kind of parliamentary monarchy. It maintained a characteristic tension between government growth and the idea that there should be some limits to state authority. This tension was expressed in new forms, but it recalled some principles that had originated in the Middle Ages. 

The Nation-State 

The absolute monarchies and the parliamentary monarchies shared important characteristics as nation-states. Unlike the great empires of many other civilizations, they ruled peoples who shared a common culture and language, some important minorities apart. They could appeal to a certain loyalty that linked cultural and political bonds. This was as true of England, where the idea of special rights of Englishmen helped feed the parliamentary movement, as it was of France. Not surpris- ingly, ordinary people in many nation-states, even though not directly represented in government, increasingly believed that government should act for their interests. Thus, Louis XIV faced recurrent popular riots based on the assumption that when bad harvests drove up food prices, the government was obligated to help people out. 

In sum, nation-states developed a growing list of functions, particularly under the banner of mercantilism, whose principles were shared by monarchists and parliamentary leaders alike. They also promoted new political values and loyalties that were very different from the political traditions of other civilizations. They kept the West politically divided and often at war. 

Summary: From 1600 to 1750, Europe saw the rise of absolute monarchies like that of King Louis XIV in France, characterized by centralized government power and mercantilist policies, in contrast to the establishment of parliamentary monarchies in Britain and the Netherlands that limited royal authority and emphasized representation, ultimately leading to the formation of nation-states based on shared culture and language.

Political Change from 1600 to 1750

Overview

• Political change was complicated, despite the gradual calming of religious strife.

• Strong monarchy tradition developed in France and elsewhere, enhancing central government functions.

• In Britain and Holland, a different emphasis emerged with a strong parliamentary check on royal power.

• These traditions were significant in shaping Europe's political future and included the rise of the nation-state.

Absolute Monarchies

• Political currents arose alongside the rise of science, often connecting the two trends.

• The 17th century saw the undoing of the feudal monarchy, which had balanced the power between kings and nobles, after the religious wars.

• Monarchs gained new powers that curtailed noble influence and required improved administration and tax collection due to ambitious military organization.

France as a Model

• France emerged as the West's largest and most powerful nation, with kings building their power in the 17th century:

  • Stopped convening medieval parliaments and passed laws unilaterally.

  • Destroyed dissident nobles' castles.

  • Appointed a growing bureaucratic class from merchants and lawyers.

  • Sent representatives to remote provinces.

  • Professionalized the army with formal training, uniforms, and support services.

King Louis XIV

• Louis XIV epitomized absolute monarchy, famously stating, "I am the state."

• He was a major patron of the arts, promoting cultural roles of government:

  • Supported science academies and standardized the French language.

  • Used Versailles to keep nobles occupied and prevent interference in governance.

• Development of state functions included:

  • Reducing internal tariffs and creating state-run manufacturing.

  • Following mercantilism principles to promote the economy and limit imports.

Spread of Absolute Monarchy

• Spain attempted to copy French principles in the 18th century, tightening control over Latin America.

• Prussia established a strong army and bureaucracy, promoting economic activity and a school system.

• The Habsburg monarchs in Austria-Hungary developed their monarchy while pushing back Turkish invasions and annexing Hungary.

• Many absolute monarchs, especially Louis XIV, sought military strength and territorial expansion, leading to wars that eventually drew opposing alliances.

Parliamentary Monarchies

• Britain and the Netherlands diverged from absolute monarchy trends:

  • Established parliamentary regimes where kings shared power with representatives.

• The Glorious Revolution (1688-1689) solidified parliamentary sovereignty in England, with the parliament no longer reliant on the king for convening.

• Parliament's rights to taxation allowed them to monitor major policies.

• Political theorists like John Locke emphasized power deriving from the people and proposed that monarchy should be restrained.

The Nation-State

• Both types of monarchies developed as nation-states, ruling over people sharing common culture and language.

• They fostered loyalty through cultural and political bonds.

• Ordinary people increasingly expected their governments to act in their interests, as seen in France under Louis XIV.

• Nation-states operated under mercantilism and promoted new political values, contributing to western political division and conflict.