2-4 Life Lessons and Criminal Behavior (A&B)

Life Lessons and Criminal Behavior

• Overview of Criminologists' Perspectives: Some criminologists view class theories of crime as overly narrow, suggesting that focusing solely on class overlooks broader aspects of criminal behavior.

• Surveys on Criminal Behavior: Research surveys indicate that criminal behavior is not limited to lower socio-economic classes. Instead, they demonstrate that the criminal instinct exists across various segments of society, including middle- and upper-class communities.

• Expression of Criminal Behavior: While criminal behavior may manifest differently in various socio-economic groups, the underlying potential to commit crimes is universal.

• Demographics of Crime: The findings argue that factors such as class, race, and gender do not entirely dictate the capacity for criminal behavior.

• Implications for the Study of Crime: This perspective encourages a broader understanding of criminality, urging researchers and policymakers not to judge crime solely based on socio-economic status but to consider a more holistic view of human behavior.

2-4a Family, Friends, and the Media: Social Processes of Crime

Main Content

Family, Friends, and the Media: Social Processes of Crime

• Zimbardo's Experiment: Psychologist Philip Zimbardo performed an experiment by placing an abandoned car on the Stanford University campus to illustrate the broad potential for misbehavior. Initially, the car remained untouched, but after Zimbardo smashed a window, passersby quickly joined in the destruction, eventually stripping the car of its valuable parts. This demonstrates how social environments can influence individual behavior.

Learning Objective 6: Three Branches of Social Process Theory

Social process theories, akin to Zimbardo's experiment, argue that the potential for criminal behavior exists in everyone, contingent on societal interactions. There are three main branches of social process theory:

1. Learning Theory

   • Concept: Popularized by Edwin Sutherland in the 1940s, learning theory posits that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with family and peers. It argues that individuals learn both practical methods and psychological aspects of crime (e.g., how to handle guilt).

   • Differential Association Theory: Sutherland's differential association theory asserts that individuals are more likely to mimic criminal behaviors if they are exposed to environments where those behaviors are accepted or encouraged. For instance, research indicates that sons of incarcerated fathers are at higher risk of engaging in delinquency and arrest.

   • Influence of Media: Recent studies, such as one conducted by researchers at Dartmouth College, reveal a correlation between exposure to violent video games and increased physical aggression, particularly among at-risk adolescents. Landmark Case: Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association (EMA)

     • In 2011, the United States Supreme Court ruled that California's law banning the sale of violent video games to minors was unconstitutional. Justice Scalia highlighted that correlation does not equal causation and that evidence did not support the claim that exposure to violent video games unequivocally caused aggressive behavior.

2. Control Theory

   • Overview: Developed by criminologist Travis Hirschi, control theory focuses on why individuals do not engage in criminal acts. It emphasizes that strong social bonds—including attachment to family, commitment to societal values, and involvement in community—act as deterrents to crime.

   • Broken Windows Theory: James Q. Wilson and George Kelling describe the "broken windows" theory, asserting that visible signs of disorder (like broken windows) encourage further deviance. By maintaining a clean environment, communities can reduce the perceived acceptance of crime.

   • Familial Influence: Research by Janet Lauritsen indicates that familial dynamics play a crucial role in shaping criminal behavior. For instance, adolescents in two-parent households tend to have similar victimization rates, regardless of neighborhood conditions, while those from single-parent households in disorganized neighborhoods are at higher risk.

3. Labeling Theory

   • Focus: Labeling theory examines how labeling individuals as criminals affects their future behavior. According to sociologist Howard Becker, labeling creates a deviant identity, leading individuals to internalize that identity and engage further in the associated behaviors.

   • Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: The theory suggests that once labeled (e.g., as a "junkie"), individuals may more readily accept this identity and act in ways that affirm it, hence perpetuating criminal behavior.

   • Critique of the Criminal Justice System: Some criminologists argue that labeling victimless crimes serves to artificially create a class of criminals and complicates reintegration into society, as labeled individuals struggle to find employment after their criminal record.

Social Process Theory and Public Policy

• Given that adults are often perceived as too entrenched in their criminal behaviors, crime prevention strategies associated with social process theory mainly focus on youths. To avoid labeling children as “delinquent,” many are diverted from formal justice processes. Educational programs that encourage positive behavior, such as resisting drugs, have become prevalent. Some policies, like those inspired by Wilson and Kelling's principles, have been credited with lowering crime rates in urban areas, including New York City.

2-4b Life Course Theories of Crime

Overview

Life course theories posit that early childhood experiences play a critical role in shaping an individual's propensity for criminal behavior. This perspective contrasts with theories that focus on later life factors such as unemployment and educational performance, arguing that these are mere consequences rather than root causes of criminality.

Importance of Early Childhood Behavior

• Learning Focus: If criminal behavior is learned, it is essential to investigate the learning that occurs during childhood. Early experiences often set the stage for future behavior.

• Risk Factors: Criminologists emphasize risk factors present in early childhood—such as difficult temperament, low learning ability, and disadvantaged family backgrounds—as significant predictors of future criminal behavior.

Self-Control Theory

• Core Concept: Proposed by Michael Gottfredson and Travis Hirschi in A General Theory of Crime (1990), this theory links criminal behavior to low self-control, established before the age of ten, often due to poor parenting.

• Characteristics of Low Self-Control:

  • Impulsivity

  • Thrill-seeking attitude

  • Tendency to resolve problems through violence rather than rational thought

Learning Objective 7

Importance of Early Childhood Behavior: According to Gottfredson and Hirschi, once low self-control has been established, it becomes a persistent trait. They argue that positive life changes do not necessarily rectify childhood behavioral problems, encapsulating the continuity theory of crime.

The Possibility of Change

While Gottfredson and Hirschi emphasize the stability of antisocial behavior, other theorists like Terrie Moffitt propose that change is possible:

• Life-Course-Persistent Offenders: Individuals whose criminal behavior continues from childhood into adulthood due to entrenched psychological issues.

• Adolescent-Limited Offenders: Those whose criminal activity is confined to their teenage years, suggesting potential for rehabilitation and positive change.

Turning Points in Life

• Robert Sampson and John Laub further explore the potential for change, proposing that individuals may encounter "turning points" that alter their life trajectory away from crime. Research indicates that positive life events, such as marriage or stable employment, can serve as pivotal moments for change.

• Other factors that can facilitate change include military service, religious or spiritual experiences, and the influential impact of personal loss.

Mastering Concepts

The Various Causes of Crime

• Choice Theories: Crime results from rational decisions made in pursuit of rewards, illustrated by cases like LaTroy Staglin.

• Biological and Psychological Trait Theories: Criminal behavior linked to biological or psychological conditions (e.g., frontotemporal dementia leading to criminal behavior).

• Sociological Theories: Crime is shaped by social conditions such as poverty, evidenced by recent crime rate increases in economically distressed cities.

• Social Conflict Theories: Criminal laws serve to oppress minority groups, as shown in racial disparities in traffic stops.

• Social Process Theories: Interactions with family and peers shape behavior; for example, familial criminal history increases delinquency risk.

• Life Course Theories: Criminal behavior is present at all life stages; early behavioral issues predict later delinquency (e.g., concentration issues at age five leading to delinquency by age fourteen).

Life Course Theories and Public Policy

Life course theories inform public policy, particularly regarding parenting and education. Interventions often start in preschool to address behavioral problems, with parenting skills classes available to improve child-rearing practices. Schools play a pivotal role in identifying and providing interventions for at-risk children, facilitating better outcomes in their social and emotional development.