62 COMMONWEALTH

1. INTRODUCTION.

The Commonwealth, previously known as The British Commonwealth of Nations, is a voluntary association of 56 independent states spanning six continents. Initially formed by former British colonies, dependencies, and other territories, the organization fosters cooperation to advance the common interests of its member peoples. It also aims to promote international understanding and contribute to global peace efforts.

After a brief introduction, I will discuss the main points which are the Commonwealth, the linguistic varieties, the intercultural influences and manifestations and the novels of Foster, Lessing and Gordimer.  

2. THE COMMONWEALTH.

The Commonwealth of Nations is a global organization composed of independent states that recognize the British monarch as the head of their association. Though it lacks a formal constitution, its policies and objectives are based on shared historical, political, and economic connections. For instance, there are key declaration such as the London Declaration in 1949 that outline shared values. The organization traces its origins to the 19th century, during the decline of the British Empire, as colonies and dominions began to develop their own national identities.

Initially, the Commonwealth consisted of eight founding members: Great Britain, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa, India, Pakistan, and Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). By the early 20th century, these dominions had achieved a high degree of self-governance. Their significant participation in World War I further solidified their recognition as independent states. In 1931, the Statute of Westminster granted these dominions equal status with Britain, formally acknowledging their autonomy while maintaining a special relationship within the Empire.

During World War II, Commonwealth nations and colonies joined forces with the United Kingdom and its allies to fight Nazi Germany, contributing to the eventual Allied victory in 1945. However, after the war, Britain struggled to retain control over its colonies, many of which experienced growing nationalist movements and demands for independence. This led to a wave of decolonization.

In 1947, both India and Pakistan gained independence and became Dominions within the British Commonwealth. Sri Lanka (then Ceylon) followed with its independence in 1948. India, Pakistan, and Ceylon became full members of the Commonwealth in the years immediately after their independence.

The Republic of Ireland left the Commonwealth in 1949 when it formally declared itself a republic, removing the British monarch as its head of state. South Africa withdrew in 1961, and Pakistan followed in 1972 in protest over the recognition of Bangladesh. Despite these resignations, the Commonwealth continued to grow as newly independent nations joined. Notably, Zimbabwe became a member in 1980, followed by Brunei in 1984.

Since then, many other nations have joined the Commonwealth, with the latest additions being Gabon and Togo in 2022, reflecting the organization’s ongoing evolution and expansion.

3. CULTURAL DIVERSITY.

We should bear in mind the significant cultural diversity within the Commonwealth. Prior to the colonization of these territories by the British, the peoples of these regions possessed their own unique languages, traditions, and cultural identities. While the Commonwealth countries now share a common language—English—and British-style institutions such as parliamentary systems and legal frameworks, their historical, cultural, religious, and economic backgrounds remain remarkably diverse.

This diversity is one of the defining characteristics of the Commonwealth. Member nations span every continent and encompass a wide range of ethnic groups, languages, and belief systems. For instance, India is home to a rich tapestry of languages and religions, while nations in the Caribbean maintain vibrant cultural traditions shaped by African, European, and indigenous influences. Pacific Island members, such as Fiji and Samoa, have unique cultural heritages deeply connected to their natural environments and traditional ways of life.

Economically, the Commonwealth includes some of the wealthiest nations, like the United Kingdom and Canada, alongside developing countries striving to improve infrastructure and living standards.

Many Commonwealth nations exhibit certain traditions and customs that form part of a shared Commonwealth culture.

One notable example is the popularity of sports like cricket and rugby. These games, introduced by the British during the colonial era, have become deeply ingrained in the cultural identity of many Commonwealth countries. For instance, cricket is a passion in nations such as India, Pakistan, Australia, and the West Indies, where it is not just a sport but a unifying social activity. Similarly, rugby holds a special place in countries like New Zealand, South Africa, and Fiji, where it inspires national pride and camaraderie.

Another shared feature is the practice of driving on the left-hand side of the road. While not universal to all Commonwealth members, this tradition persists in countries such as India, Australia, and Kenya, reflecting their historical adoption of British road rules.

Parliamentary traditions also tie Commonwealth nations together. Many members have parliamentary systems based on the Westminster model, with structures like a bicameral legislature, a ceremonial head of state, and a prime minister leading the government. While these systems have evolved to fit the specific needs of each country, their foundations remain unmistakably British.

Finally, language conventions play a role in fostering a sense of shared culture. Commonwealth countries generally use British spelling conventions rather than American ones. Words like "colour," "centre," and "favourite" are common in written English across much of the Commonwealth, maintaining a linguistic link to British heritage.

On the whole, recognizing and respecting this diversity is essential for the Commonwealth’s mission to promote shared values such as democracy, human rights, and sustainable development while honoring the unique identities of its member nations.

4. LINGUISTIC VARIETIES.

In the various regions of the former British Empire, the English language has evolved in unique ways, resulting in distinct varieties that differ from the English spoken in England. These differences arise from several factors, reflecting the complex and dynamic nature of language:

• One key cause is the natural evolution of language in communities separated by time and distance. As English speakers settled in new territories, their speech began to change and adapt independently, influenced by local conditions, lifestyles, and cultural practices.

• The new environment itself plays a significant role; for instance, its biodiversity and cultural practices.

• Another factor is the imperfect learning of English by non-native speakers in colonial territories. This learning often led to new pronunciations, grammatical structures, and idiomatic expressions that became normalized in the local context.

• Speakers in new countries also adapted the language to fit their needs and cultural realities. This process often involved blending English with elements of indigenous languages, creating a hybrid vocabulary.

These linguistic varieties include the English spoken in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, India and Pakistan and South Africa. 

4.1. AUSTRALIAN ENGLISH.

Australian English is the predominant variety of English spoken in the Antipodes, and it has distinct features that set it apart from other English dialects. Its origins are closely tied to the early European settlement in Australia, particularly by people from the lower classes of England. This connection is evident in its similarity to the Cockney accent, which has influenced the pronunciation and intonation patterns of Australian English.

One notable grammatical feature of Australian English is the occasional use of the feminine pronoun "she" to refer to inanimate objects or general things.

The unique environment of Australia has also had a significant impact on its vocabulary. Words borrowed from Indigenous Australian languages, such as kangaroo, boomerang, and gum-tree, are now widely recognized. These terms describe aspects of the flora and fauna that are distinctive to Australia and were unfamiliar to English settlers.

In addition to these borrowings, Australian English has developed its own meanings for familiar words. For example, station refers to a large sheep or cattle farm, a usage distinct from the standard English meaning of a railway or bus stop. Similarly, washer in Australian English typically means a face cloth or washcloth, diverging from other English-speaking regions where it might refer to a mechanical part.

Australian English also boasts entirely unique words. A well-known example is outback, which describes remote, sparsely populated areas far from urban centers. This term embodies the cultural significance of Australia’s vast, rugged interior.

4.2. CANADIAN ENGLISH.

Canadian English is a unique variety of English that has been shaped by historical influences from both American English (AmE) and British English (BrE). However, it has also developed its own distinct vocabulary and characteristics, partly due to Canada's bilingual environment and cultural identity.

One clear influence on Canadian English is its proximity to French-speaking communities, particularly in Quebec. This has introduced words that are uncommon in other English variants. For example, serviette is used in Canadian English to mean "napkin," a term derived from French.

Beyond these French-influenced terms, Canadian English includes words that are uniquely Canadian. For instance, tuque refers to a woolen hat often worn in cold weather. Another example is loonie, which can mean both a type of bird (the loon, commonly found in Canada) and the colloquial name for the Canadian one-dollar coin.

Despite these distinctive features, the spoken language in Canada is much closer to American English than to British English, particularly in pronunciation and spelling. For instance, Canadians generally use American-style pronunciations of words like "schedule" and "aluminum," but they also maintain some British spelling conventions, such as "colour" and "favourite."

4.3. NEW ZEALAND ENGLISH.

New Zealand English is a distinctive variety of the English language that closely resembles British English, more so than other non-European English varieties. This connection reflects New Zealand's colonial history and its enduring ties to Britain. However, New Zealand English has also evolved to incorporate unique elements, many of which originate from the indigenous Māori language and the local environment.

A significant feature of New Zealand English is its borrowing of Māori words. For example, the term whare is used to mean "hut" or "house," reflecting traditional Māori building styles. Other Māori words have entered everyday usage, especially those connected to cultural concepts, place names, and natural features.

The unique flora and fauna of New Zealand have also contributed specific terms to the language. For instance, kiwi not only refers to the iconic, flightless bird native to New Zealand but is also used colloquially as a nickname for New Zealanders themselves.

4.4. INDIAN AND PAKISTANI ENGLISH.

It is important to note that in India and Pakistan, English functions primarily as a lingua franca for communication among diverse linguistic groups. With hundreds of languages spoken across these nations, English bridges the gap between different communities. However, it is worth mentioning that only a relatively small segment of the population—primarily in urban areas and among the educated elite—uses English regularly.

The English spoken in India and Pakistan has a distinct character, shaped by the unique linguistic and cultural contexts of the region. It is often described as bookish, reflecting a style of English that is highly formal and somewhat detached from the everyday usage of native English speakers. This formality is largely a result of traditional teaching methods that emphasize written English, grammar, and rote learning over conversational fluency.

Pronunciation in Indian and Pakistani English also has notable features. For example, the sounds /v/ and /b/ are not always distinguished, leading to pronunciations that may sound unusual to native speakers of other varieties of English.

Additionally, Indian and Pakistani English include unique words and expressions that are not found in other English varieties. For example, the term brother-cousin is used to refer to a male cousin, highlighting the cultural importance of extended family relationships. Similarly, mugging is used to mean studying hard, especially in preparation for exams.

Many idiomatic expressions in Indian and Pakistani English are direct translations from local languages, which can sound unusual or even surprising to native English speakers. Phrases like bow my forefront (to show deep respect) or fall at your feet (to express reverence or seek forgiveness) are examples of this phenomenon.

4.5. SOUTH AFRICAN ENGLISH.

The orthography and grammar of South African English are virtually identical to those of British English, reflecting the country’s colonial history and its early adoption of British norms in language. However, the vocabulary of South African English has evolved significantly, shaped by the cultural and linguistic diversity of the region.

One major influence on South African English is Afrikaans, a language derived from Dutch and spoken widely in South Africa. Many Afrikaans words have been absorbed into South African English, enriching its lexicon with terms unique to the local context. For example, veld refers to open grassland or countryside, a term that describes a prominent feature of South Africa's landscape. Similarly, dorp is used to mean a small village or town.

In addition to borrowing from Afrikaans, South African English has incorporated words from other official languages spoken in the country, such as Zulu, Xhosa, and Tswana. These contributions further reflect the linguistic richness of South Africa’s population.

Interestingly, some South African words have transcended regional usage and entered the broader English lexicon. Terms like commando (originally referring to a military unit), trek (a long or arduous journey), and apartheid (the system of racial segregation) are now widely recognized and used in global English.

To sum up, these linguistic varieties reflect the adaptability of English as a global language. They highlight how language evolves in response to cultural, geographical, and historical contexts, enriching its diversity while maintaining its role as a means of communication across the Commonwealth and beyond.

5. COMMONWEALTH LITERATURE.

But how all these cultural, political and linguistic varieties are reflected on Literature? Let's analyse 3 main authors and their works: Forster, Lessing and Gordimer. 

5.1. EDGAR MORGAN FOSTER (1879-1970): INDIA.

5.1.1. LIFE.

E.M. Forster was a distinguished English novelist and an influential member of the Bloomsbury Group, an intellectual circle known for its contributions to literature, art, and philosophy. Born in London in 1879, Forster faced an early tragedy when his father died when he was just two years old. Raised by his mother and his aunt, he grew up in a household that nurtured his intellectual curiosity and creativity.

As a teenager, Forster attended Tonbridge School, where he began to cultivate his love for literature. He later went on to King’s College, Cambridge, where he formed lifelong friendships with individuals who would later become prominent members of the Bloomsbury Group. These connections greatly influenced his life and work.

Forster’s life was marked by a love of studies and travel, which enriched his writing with vivid settings and intricate cultural themes. His journeys to countries such as Italy, Germany, Egypt, and India deeply shaped his worldview and provided the backdrop for many of his novels and stories. His extensive familiarity with India, in particular, became a cornerstone of his literary achievements.

During World War I, Forster joined the Red Cross and served in Egypt. After the war, he returned to India, where he worked as the private secretary to the Maharajah of Dewas. His experiences in India inspired his masterpiece, A Passage to India.

Following the success of A Passage to India, Forster chose to step away from novel writing, instead dedicating himself to other pursuits. He became the first President of the National Council for Civil Liberties (now Liberty), advocating for human rights. Forster’s contributions were recognized with numerous honors, including being named an Honorary Fellow of King’s College, a Companion of Honour, and a recipient of the prestigious Order of Merit.

5.1.2. STYLE AND WORKS.

In 1910, Forster published Howards End, a novel centered on an English country house. The book delved into the conflict between two families: one dedicated to art and literature, and the other focused on business and material wealth. It masterfully explored themes of money, culture, and human connection, solidifying Forster's reputation as a keen observer of societal dynamics..

But his most celebrated work is A Passage to India (1924). The novel offers a detailed picture of Indian society under British colonial rule, portraying the clash between the East and the West and exploring prejudices and misunderstandings between the two cultures. Unlike Forster's earlier works, which often focused on personal relationships and social class, A Passage to India stands out for its political content. It is one of the few of Forster's novels to directly address the political occupation of India by the British.

The novel critiques the way Anglo-Indians (British citizens living in India) often ignored and mistreated the local Indian population. It reveals the complex and often unjust relationships between the British colonizers and the Indians, shedding light on the prejudice and racial tensions that defined this period of British rule.

Forster's examination of human relations is a central theme of the novel. At its core, A Passage to India highlights the failure of communication between people of different races, cultures, and backgrounds. This failure to understand one another leads to misunderstandings, conflict, and, ultimately, tragedy.

It had a strong impact on public opinion at the time. A Passage to India remains a powerful critique of colonialism, and its themes continue to resonate with readers and scholars today.

5.2. DORIS LESSING (1919-2013): AFRICA.

5.2.1. LIFE.

Doris Lessing was born in 1919 in Persia (now Iran) to British parents. In 1924, her family relocated to Southern Rhodesia (modern-day Zimbabwe), where she spent her formative years on her father’s farm. Her difficult relationship with her mother, marked by tension and misunderstanding, deeply influenced her literary work. Lessing left formal education at the age of 14 and worked as a nursemaid, dedicating herself to self-education and developing into a profound intellectual.

Lessing’s first marriage ended in divorce, after which she married Gottfried Lessing, a Jewish-German communist. Their union lasted two years, and following their separation, she moved to London in 1949.

5.2.2. STYLE AND WORKS.

Lessing's works frequently explore themes such as race relations, gender dynamics, personal and societal change, and the complexities of individual identity versus collective ideologies. Much of her writing is informed by her upbringing in Africa and her struggles within a patriarchal and colonial society. Change is surely the key word to describe both her attitude to life and her work.

The Children of Violence series (1952–1969), featuring her alter ego Martha Quest, is a bildungsroman that chronicles the journey of a young woman navigating the personal and political challenges of mid-20th-century life. The novels deal with Lessing's childhood in a rigidly structured environment, her secluded and frustrating life as a white middle-class woman in colonial Rhodesia, her divorce and finally, her political experience.

She wrote The Grass is Singing in 1950 in London. This novel explores the unthinkable issue of sexual relationships between races; it was an immediate success. Gender relations and the internal struggles of women are extensively portrayed in her seminal work, The Golden Notebook (1962).

5.3. NADIME GORDIMER (1923-2014): SOUTH AFRICA.

5.3.1. LIFE.

Nadine Gordimer was born near Johannesburg, South Africa, in 1923. The daughter of Jewish immigrants, she grew up in a middle-class environment, attending private schools and later studying at the University of Witwatersrand. Gordimer's literary career began early, with her first story published when she was just 14. However, it wasn't until the publication of her first novel, The Lying Days (1953), that she gained significant attention.

As a writer, Gordimer was an outspoken campaigner against racism and intolerance, particularly during the apartheid era in South Africa. Despite facing harsh criticism from many quarters, she remained deeply connected to her homeland, constantly admiring its history, people, and landscapes. Much of her work was banned by the apartheid authorities, yet she refused to be silenced or give up her fight for social justice.

In 1991, Gordimer was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature, becoming the first woman in 25 years to receive the prestigious honor.

5.3.2. STYLE AND WORKS.

Nadine Gordimer's works are known for their rich and detailed descriptions, where she paints vivid pictures of characters, plots, and settings. From her first volume of short stories, Face to Face (1949), each of her books delves deeply into the racist legislation that shaped South African life under apartheid. She writes in a controlled, unsentimental style, which stands in stark contrast to the heavy themes she explores, such as the effects of apartheid on the lives of South Africans and the frustrations that come from living in a racially-divided society.

Gordimer’s novels often depict the daily lives of South Africans—black, white, and coloured—living in an artificial and segregated world. The themes of exile and alienation permeate her works, such as in The Soft Voice of the Serpent (1956), where the characters struggle with these emotions. In The Conservationism (1974), which addresses the exploitation of black employees by a white man, Gordimer shared the Booker Prize, further cementing her status as a significant literary figure. Other notable works by Gordimer include July’s People and Burger’s Daughter, both of which explore the social and political turmoil of apartheid-era South Africa

6. TEACHING IMPLICATIONS.

Before finishing, I would like to comment on the teaching implications this topic might offer. 

To begin with, I would like to justify the topic in the English curriculum. According to our current legislation based on LOMLOE from 2020 the teaching of a foreign language must be based on the communicative approach and communication must be the essential part of a language learning process. In addition to this, the law also highlights the importance for students to know not only how to use the language but also about the language, for this reason, it is very important to learn the historical literature and cultural aspects of the language learned. In this context, this topic has a relevant role in the English curriculum as it can be a tool to transmit our students’ linguistic and cultural competences.

On top of that, the current law and the Council of Europe prioritize the development of the communicative competence and establish many methodological principles of great use for this topic. These principles and the communicative competence are also reflected in the Royal Decree of 29th of March and in the Order of 2nd of August of 2022.

Therefore, historical events and literature, so crucial to understanding the origins of English and its role as an international language, must be explained to our students in a very communicative way. The EFRL provides a key for that. It states that our role as teachers is that of facilitators. Then, our role would be to make this topic and the language as close as possible to our students' reality and to provide them with knowledge and resources for its understanding. In other words, to work from the known to the unknown. For instance, there are books and film adaptations of the medieval period which can be incredibly useful in our lessons to practice the different competences established by the curriculum.

Moreover, a whole cultural environment is created in the classroom by working on topics like this. Students can carry out different communicative tasks with specific communicative purposes. For instance, how to produce a short story on social inequalities, reading one of the novels just mentioned or acting out a scene.

7. CONCLUSION.

To conclude, British Imperialism and the Commonwealth marked a period of significant change, colonial expansion, and wars. The Commonwealth is an association of diverse sovereign states where the rich cultural diversity within each country is intertwined with shared traditions and a common language. This period of imperialism and its aftermath has shaped not only the political and social landscapes of these nations but also their literature. The works from this time reflect the diversity of experiences and the complex issues that emerged, such as racism, inequalities, and the consequences of colonialism. These themes are vividly explored in the works of authors like Doris Lessing, E.M. Forster, and Nadine Gordimer, whose writings delve into the personal and political struggles shaped by the colonial past and the lasting effects of imperialism.

8. BIBLIOGRAPHY.

To write this topic, several references have been used, among which I would like to highlight:

• Alexander, M. (2000). A History of English Literature.

• Arnold, C. (2015). The Companion to British History.

• Daiches, D. (1980). A Critical History of English Literature.

• Sanders, A. (1996). The Short Oxford History of English Literature.

Besides, legal sources have also been used to justify the topic:

• LOMLOE Organic Law 3/2020, of 29th of December to improve the educational quality.

• Council of Europe (2001). Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching and Assessment. Strasbourg.

• Royal Decree 217/2022, of 29th of March, which establishes the basic curriculum of secondary compulsory education and bachillerato.

• Order ECD 1172/2022, of 2nd of August, which passes the curriculum of secondary education and allows its application in the schools of Aragon.