Political and Judicial activity before the war

1844 U.S. Election

• Candidates: James Polk (Democrat) vs. Henry Clay (Whig)

Party Platforms

• Whigs:

  • Internal Improvements

    • Bridges

    • Harbors

    • Canals

  • Vision: Civilized lands with bustling towns and factories (e.g. New England)

• Democrats:

  • Expansionists

  • Borders pushed outward

  • Private ownership of newly added land (e.g. isolated plantations in the South)

  • No government involvement in newly added land

Election Results

• Close election

• Polk wins

The Polk Presidency

Goals

• Restore government funds in Treasury (vs. pet banks under Jackson)

• Reduce tariffs

• Accomplished by end of 1846

Texas and Oregon

• Proposed annexation by President Tyler (last days of administration)

• Northern congressmen alarmed (potential 5 slave states below Missouri Compromise line)

• Demanded annexation of entire Oregon Country

• "54°40´ or Fight" demands, but Polk recognizes possibility of two territorial wars

• Conceded on demands for expansion into Canada

• Negotiated reasonable American-Canadian border

• Oregon Treaty signed with Great Britain in 1846

  • Acquired peaceful ownership of Oregon, Washington, and parts of Idaho, Wyoming, and Montana

  • Established current northern border of the region

Mexican-American War

• Efforts to claim Southwest from Mexico (failed attempt to buy territory)

• Challenged Mexican authorities on Texas border

• Mexican attack on American troops

• Used border attack to argue for declaration of war

• Declared war by Congress in 1846

• Whigs (e.g. Abraham Lincoln) questioned Polk's claim of Mexican first fire

• War began in 1846

Mexican-American War & Public Opinion

• Northerners: feared new states in West would be slave states, thus tipping balance in favor of proslavery forces

• Opponents: believed war was provoked by slaveholders, resulting in slave owners having control over government

• Referenced as "Slave Power" by suspicious Northerners

• Gag rule in 1836 raised suspicions of Slave Power

• Wilmot Proviso: Congressional bill to prohibit extension of slavery in territories gained from Mexico

  • House vote fell along sectional lines: Northern in favor, Southern opposed

  • Result in Free-Soil Party: regional, single-issue party opposed to slavery expansion (competition with slave labor)

• Mexican War: successful for American forces, resulted in Mexican Cession (Southwest land) for $15 million

• Gadsden Purchase ($10 million): southern regions of modern Arizona and New Mexico for transcontinental railroad

Slavery Expansion & Debates

• Addition of new territory increased nation's potential wealth, but posed problems regarding slavery status

• East of Mississippi: evenly divided between lands suited for plantation agriculture (slavery) and those not

• West of Mississippi: not suitable for traditional plantation crops

• Southerners: saw future where slavery was confined to southeast quarter and outvoted by free-soil advocates

• Tried to open up more areas to slavery through popular sovereignty

  • Territories decide by vote whether to allow slavery within borders.

The Compromise of 1850

• Background

  • Sectional strife over new territories started as the ink was drying on the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo

  • During the Gold Rush, settlers had flooded into California and it wanted statehood with a constitution prohibiting slavery, opposed by South

  • Debate grew hostile leading to discussion of secession among southern legislators

• Major Players

  • Henry Clay, Whig Senator from Kentucky

    • Drafted and proposed the Compromise of 1850

    • Clarified the final boundaries of Texas

    • Proposed banning slavery in the entire Mexican Cession and wanted stringent Fugitive Slave Act

  • John Calhoun, Democrat Senator from South Carolina

    • Defender of slavery and opposed the Compromise

    • Advocate for states’ rights and secession, popular sovereignty for Mexican Cession territories

  • Daniel Webster, Whig Senator from Massachusetts

    • Supported the Compromise to preserve the Union and avert Civil War

    • Characterized himself "as an American" in the Seventh of March speech

    • Risked offending abolitionist voter base by accepting the Compromise

  • Stephen Douglas, Democrat

    • Worked with Henry Clay to hammer out a workable solution, the Compromise of 1850

• The Compromise of 1850

  • Defeated in Congress when presented as a complete package

  • Douglas broke the package into separate bills and managed to get majority support for each

  • Admitted California as a free state and stronger fugitive slave law enacted

  • Created the territories of Utah and New Mexico, left status of slavery up to each territory to decide

  • Abolished slave trade, not slavery itself, in Washington, D.C.

• Issues with the Compromise

  • Definition of popular sovereignty was vague and different interpretations by Northerners and Southerners

  • Fugitive slave law made it easier to retrieve escaped enslaved people, but required cooperation from citizens of free states and seen as immoral

• Increase in Antislavery Sentiments

  • Publication of Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe in 1852

    • Sentimental novel depicting plantation life based on information from abolitionist friends

    • Sold over a million copies and adapted into popular plays that toured America and Europe

    • Powerful piece of propaganda awakening antislavery sentiment in millions who had never thought about the issue before

The Kansas-Nebraska Act and “Bleeding Kansas”

• The Kansas-Nebraska Act was enacted in 1854 to establish civil authority and secure land in the Kansas and Nebraska territories, where no civil authority existed.

• The act was promoted by Illinois Senator Stephen Douglas to bring money and jobs to his home state through the termination of the transcontinental railway in Illinois.

• The act was passed despite objections from antislavery Whigs and Democrats, leading to the weakening of the Fugitive Slave Act through personal liberty laws in northern states.

• The act drove the final stake into the heart of the Whig Party and led to the formation of the Republican Party, which aimed to keep slavery out of the territories and appeal to a wider constituency through a range of issues.

• The American party (also known as the Know-Nothings) was formed around the issue of nativism, but the party self-destructed over disagreement about slavery.

• The Kansas-Nebraska Act led to violence in the territories, as abolitionists and proslavery groups rushed in and both antislavery and proslavery constitutions were sent to Washington.

• Kansas became known as "Bleeding Kansas" or "Bloody Kansas" due to the conflict between the two sides, which resulted in the deaths of over 200 people.

• The events in Kansas further polarized the nation, leading to the election of James Buchanan as the 1856 Democratic candidate. Buchanan won the election, carrying the South, while the Republicans carried the North.

Buchanan, Dred Scott, and the Election of 1860

• James Buchanan was US president from 1857-1861 and worked to maintain the status quo by enforcing the Fugitive Slave Act and opposing abolitionist activism.

• Dred Scott v. Sandford was a case heard by the Supreme Court two days after Buchanan took office, where Scott, a former slave, sued for his freedom. The Court ruled that enslaved people were property, not citizens, and that Congress couldn't regulate slavery in the territories.

• The Dred Scott decision was a major victory for Southerners and a turning point in the decade of crisis, it was vehemently denounced in the North as further proof of a Slave Power.

• The 1858 Illinois Senate race between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen Douglas was nationally watched, with Lincoln delivering his "House Divided" speech and Douglas damaging his political career with his ambiguous stance on popular sovereignty.

• John Brown’s raid on Harper's Ferry in 1859 and his subsequent execution sparked northern abolitionist support.

• The 1860 Democratic convention split between Northern Democrats supporting Douglas and Southerners supporting Breckinridge.

• The election of 1860 showed the nation was on the brink of fracture, with Lincoln and Douglas contesting the North, and Breckinridge representing the South.

The Civil War and Reconstruction (1860-1877)

Civil War Era

• Background

  • Slavery was the central issue, but not the only or explicitly stated reason for the Civil War

  • Four Border States (Missouri, Kentucky, Maryland, and Delaware) were slave states that fought for the Union

  • Northerners fought to preserve the Union, while Southerners fought for states’ rights

  • Lincoln's views on slavery evolved

  • As late as 1862, Lincoln's primary goal was to save the Union, not necessarily abolish slavery

Battles

• Battle of Antietam

  • First battle fought in the East where the Union wasn't completely defeated

  • Union claimed victory and showed Britain and France that they weren't a lost cause

  • Gave Lincoln platform to announce the Emancipation Proclamation

• Battle of Gettysburg

  • Most northern point the Confederacy had reached at the time

  • Lee's troops suffered massive casualties and were forced to retreat

  • Boosted confidence for the Union

Gettysburg Address

• Delivered four months after Battle of Gettysburg

• Redefined the War as a struggle for human equality, not just preservation of Union

Influence of Political, Economic, and Social Factors

• The Civil War impacted not only the battlefields, but also the political, economic, and social realms

• Political and diplomatic consequences of battles like Antietam and Gettysburg

• Political, social, and economic conditions influenced the outcome of the war

The Civil War and the Confederacy

Central Control Under the Confederacy

• Confederate government brought southern states under greater central control

• Jefferson Davis took control of southern economy and imposed taxes

• Davis took control of transportation and created large bureaucracy to oversee economic developments

• Declared martial law and suspended habeas corpus to maintain control

• Lincoln was using similar steps in the North, causing chafing in the Confederacy

Economic Modernization and Challenges

• Davis tried to modernize the southern economy, but lagged behind in industrialization

• Rapid economic growth led to rapid inflation, causing poverty in the South

• Confederacy imposed conscription, causing further poverty and class conflict

• Wealthy were allowed to hire surrogates and were exempt from military service, causing increased tensions

Towards the End of the War

• Class tensions led to widespread desertions from the Confederate Army

• Southerners in small towns ignored the government and tried to carry on as if there was no war

• Many resisted when asked to support passing troops

The Civil War and the Union

I. Economic Impacts A. Northern economy

• Boosted by demand for war-related goods (uniforms, weapons)

• Loss of southern markets initially harmed economy

• War economy brought boom period

• Entrepreneurs became wealthy, some through war profiteering

• Corruption widespread, prompted congressional investigation B. Southern economy

• Accelerated inflation rate (over 300%)

II. Workers and Unions A. Workers concerned about job security, formed unions B. Businesses opposed unions, blacklisted members, broke strikes C. Republican Party supported business, opposed to regulation

III. Government Powers A. Increase in central government power B. Lincoln's actions

• Economic development programs without congressional approval

• Government loans and grants to businesses, raised tariffs

• Suspended writ of habeas corpus in border states

• Printed national currency C. Treasury Secretary: Salmon P. Chase

• Issued greenbacks, precursor to modern currency

IV. Key Vocabulary and People

War profiteering Inflation Unions Lincoln Salmon P. Chase

• Initially, neither the Union nor the Confederacy declared the Civil War to be about slavery

• The Constitution protected slavery where it already existed, so many opponents were against extending slavery into new territories

• Lincoln argued for gradual emancipation, compensation to slaveholders, and colonization of freed enslaved people

• Radical Republicans in Congress wanted immediate emancipation and introduced confiscation acts in 1861 and 1862

• The second confiscation act allowed the government to liberate all enslaved people, but Lincoln refused to enforce it

• Lincoln's idea of gradual emancipation was based on a law in Pennsylvania passed in 1780

• Enslaved people supported the Southern war effort by growing crops and cooking meals, leading to their liberation becoming a side effect of Union victory

• Lincoln issued the Emancipation Proclamation in September 1862 after the Union victory at Antietam

• The Emancipation Proclamation stated that the government would liberate all slaves in states "in rebellion" on January 1, 1863

• It did not free slaves in border states or those already under Union control, and allowed Southern states to rejoin the Union without giving up slavery

• The Proclamation declared the Civil War as a war against slavery and changed its purpose

• Lincoln supported complete emancipation and the Thirteenth Amendment before his reelection campaign

• After his reelection, he tried to negotiate a settlement with Southern leaders for reentry into the Union and voting on the Thirteenth Amendment.

The Election of 1864 and the End of the Civil War

• General Opinion

  • North and South both favored end of the war

  • George McClellan lost due to opposing majority of Democrats

• Southern Population

  • Less than 1% owned over 100 enslaved people

  • Non-slaveholding farmers resented Confederacy and war

• Northern Opinion

  • War Democrats: war necessary to preserve Union

  • Copperheads: accused Lincoln of national social revolution

  • Most violent opposition in New York City

  • Draft riots in 1863

  • Irish immigrants resentful of being drafted

  • Feared competition with former slaves for low-paying jobs

• War Progress

  • Summer 1864 victories helped Lincoln's reelection

  • Union victory virtually assured by early spring 1865

  • Established Freedman's Bureau for newly liberated Black people

  • First federal, social welfare program in U.S. history

• End of War

  • Confederate leaders surrendered in April 1865

  • John Wilkes Booth assassinated Lincoln five days later

  • Devastating consequences for reunited nation

• War Cost

  • Over 3 million men fought

  • Over 500,000 died

  • As many seriously wounded

  • Both governments ran up huge debts

  • South ravaged by Union soldiers

  • Sherman's March from Atlanta to sea in 1864

  • Union Army burned everything in its wake

  • Foreshadowed wide-scale warfare of 20th century

• Political Impact

  • War permanently expanded role of government

  • Government grew rapidly to manage economy and war

Reconstruction

• Reconstruction refers to the period of 1865-1877 and the process of readmitting southern states, rebuilding physical damage, and integrating newly freed Blacks into society

• Lincoln's Ten-Percent Plan was a plan to allow southern states back into the Union after 10% of voters took an oath of allegiance and accepted the Thirteenth Amendment, but was seen as too lenient by Republicans

• The Wade-Davis Bill provided for military rule in former Confederate states and required 50% of the electorate to swear an oath of allegiance, but was pocket vetoed by Lincoln and later died

• Lincoln's and the Wade-Davis Bill did not make provisions for Black suffrage

• With Lincoln's assassination, Andrew Johnson assumed the presidency and developed the Reconstruction Plan which required a loyalty oath but barred many former Confederate elite from taking it

• Johnson's Reconstruction Plan was met with resistance from Congress, leading to his impeachment trial

• Johnson's impeachment trial, the first of a U.S. President, was a result of political conflicts between Johnson and the Radical Republicans over Reconstruction policies.

The Failure of Reconstruction

General Overview:

• Reconstruction had successes and failures

• New state constitutions allowed all men to vote, elected government positions, public schools, and industrial development

• Failure was due to high tax rates, propaganda war, corruption, and political scandals

Successes:

• All southern men could vote

• Elected government positions replaced appointed positions

• Public schools and social institutions created

• Industrial and rail development stimulated

• Black people serving in southern governments

Failures:

• High tax rates and public opposition

• Propaganda war against Reconstruction

• Corruption of Northerners and Southerners

• Political scandals during Grant's administration

Political Scandals during Grant's Administration:

• Black Friday, 1869

• Credit Mobilier scandal, 1872

• New York Custom House ring, 1872

• Star Route frauds, 1872-1876

• Sanborn incident, 1874

• Pratt & Boyd scandal, 1875

• Whiskey Ring, 1875

• Delano affair, 1875

• Trading post scandal, 1876

• Alexander Cattell & Co. scandal, 1876

• Safe burglary, 1876

• Diverted public's attention from postwar conditions in the South

• Civil War officially ended but a war of intimidation began by insurgent groups (Ku Klux Klan, White League)

• Attorney General Amos Akerman declared the actions of these groups amount to war

• Federal troops were sent in to oppose the Klan under the Enforcement Acts

• Reconstruction did little to alter the South's power structure or redistribute wealth to freedmen

• Federal government signaled early on it would ease up restrictions and President Grant enforced the law loosely

• Supreme Court restricted the scope of the 14th and 15th Amendments, allowing for voting restrictions for Black people

• President Grant's administration was corrupt and tarnished Reconstruction

• 1872 election, Liberal Republicans abandoned coalition supporting Reconstruction due to corruption

• Grant moved closer to conciliation and several acts pardoned rebels

• Southern Democrats regained control by 1876 and called themselves Redeemers, intending to reverse Republican policies

• 1876 election was contested, Samuel J. Tilden won popular vote but needed electoral vote

• Compromise of 1877 was reached to resolve the election, Hayes won and ended military reconstruction, federal troops pulled out of Southern states

• Military reconstruction ended, life for Black people became worse and took nearly 100 years for the federal government to fulfill the ideal of equality expressed in the Declaration of Independence.

Southern Blacks During and After Reconstruction

• End of the Civil War

  • Ambiguous state of freedom

  • Most stayed on plantations as sharecroppers

  • Some searched for separated family members

  • Freedman’s Bureau assistance

    • Jobs and housing

    • Money and food for those in need

    • Schools established, including Fisk University and Howard University

    • Terribly underfunded with little impact once military reconstruction ended

• Lack of Redistributed Land

  • Freedman’s Bureau attempted to establish labor contracting system

  • Failed, Blacks preferred sharecropping

    • Traded portion of crop for right to work someone else’s land

    • System worked at first, but landowners eventually abused it

    • Widespread at end of Reconstruction

    • No court would fairly try cases of sharecroppers vs. landowners

    • Sharecropping existed until mid-20th century, included more whites than Blacks

• Progressive States

  • Mississippi had large Black population and was most progressive

    • Hiram Revels and Blanche K. Bruce became first Black senators in 1870 and 1875

  • Robert Smalls founded Republican Party of South Carolina and served in U.S. House of Representatives in the 1880s

• Key Vocabulary

  • Freedman’s Bureau

  • Sharecropping

  • Hiram Revels

  • Blanche K. Bruce

  • Robert Smalls