Lecture_7_-'_Long_Term_Memory_Encoding_Consolidation_and_Retrieval_Spring_2025

Chapter 7: Long-Term Memory: Encoding, Consolidation, and Retrieval

Encoding: The process of acquiring and transforming incoming information into memory.
Retrieval: The process of transferring information from long-term memory back into working memory.
Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition of information that keeps it active but doesn't effectively transfer it to LTM.
Elaborative Rehearsal: Involves using meanings and connections to enhance the transfer of information to LTM.

Craik and Tulving (1975): Demonstrated that deeper processing (like fill-in-the-blanks) correlates with improved memory performance.

Visual Imagery: Enhances memory by creating mental images.
Self-Reference Effect: Relating information to oneself improves retention.
Generation Effect: Actively generating information (e.g., through practice) reinforces memory.
Information Organization: Structuring information can aid recall.
Survival Value: Relating words to survival scenarios increases memory relevance.
Retrieval Practice: Actively recalling information strengthens memory.

Bransford & Johnson (1972): Experiment showed that creating a mental framework (like a picture) before reading improved memory of difficult information.

Karpicke and Roediger (2008): Examined the effectiveness of study-and-test procedures:
- Group 1: Studied and tested all words.
- Group 2: Studied only missed words and tested on all.
- Group 3: Studied all words but tested only on missed ones.
Conclusion: Testing enhances retrieval and memory performance.

Cued Recall: Uses cues to aid in recalling information. More effective than free recall.
Mantyla’s Experiment (1986): Showed better recall when retrieval cues were personally generated.

Information is remembered better when the context at encoding matches the retrieval context.
Baddeley’s Diving Experiment (1975): Best recall was in the same location for both encoding and retrieval.

Better memory occurs when a person’s mood during encoding matches the mood during retrieval.

Transfer-Appropriate Processing: Improved memory occurs when the processing type at encoding aligns with retrieval task.
Morris et al. (1977): Showed that a rhyming-based encoding task led to better performance in a matching test.

Transforms new memories from a fragile state to a more stable one.
- Synaptic Consolidation: Fast, occurs at synapses.
- Systems Consolidation: Slow, involves gradual reorganization of neural circuits.

Müller and Pilzecker (1900): Participants who experienced a delay before learning a second list had better recall of the first; this demonstrated the significance of consolidation time.

Hebb (1948): Proposed that memories are recorded through physiological changes at synapses.
Long-term Potentiation (LTP): Enhanced neuron firing following repeated stimulation.

Standard Model: Postulates that hippocampal activity decreases over time after encoding, while cortical connections strengthen.

Retrograde Amnesia: Memory loss of events prior to trauma.
Graded Amnesia: Recent memories are more fragile compared to older memories.

Multiple Trace Model: Suggests that the hippocampus is activated during the retrieval of both recent and remote memories and that its involvement can change over time.

Retrieved memories can become fragile and need re-consolidation.
Studies demonstrate that memories are continually modified based on experiences and context.

Brunet et al. (2008): Used a drug during reconsolidation of a traumatic memory to reduce stress responses in future activations.

Elaboration: Connect new knowledge with prior knowledge.
Self-testing: Generate questions and test oneself regularly.
Breaks and Spacing Effect: Use short, spaced sessions for better retention.
Sleep: Facilitates memory consolidation.
Avoid Familiarity Cues: Understanding doesn’t equate to just recognizing information.