b. Arthropoda- jointed legs; segmented bodies.
Example: Insects(6 legs) - mosquito, butterflies
Crustaceans(10 legs) - crab, shrimps, lobsters
Arachnid (8 legs) - spiders

Centipede (more than 10 legs)
Milipede

Molting or Ecdysis -insects shed off their old cuticle to grow in size.

Nematoda-roundworms; unsegmented.
Example: pinworm, Ascaris, hookworm, filarial worm
Platyhelminthes- flatworms: worms have soft tissues; unsegmented.
Example: flukes, tapeworms, planaria
Annelida- segmented worms
Example: leech, earthworms

Earthworms are hermaphroditic - Both male and female
- organs are found in the same worm.
Leeches promote anticoagulation.

Mollusca- with soft bodies (usually with shells)
Example: squids, clams, snails, octopi
Echinodermata- spiny body
Example: sea star, sea urchin, sand dollars, sea cucumber, brittle
star
•Chordata
Fish (Pisces)- scales, gills, and fins: shark, lampreys Amphibians (Amphibia) - frog, salamander
Amphibia- Two lives
Reptiles (Reptilia) - eggs, scaly bodies: crocodile, snake, turtle
Reptilia- Creeping
Birds (Aves) - scaly legs, wings, feathers: penguin, ostrich Mammals (Mammalia) - mammary glands, hairs, milk: human, platypus, marsupial
Walrus Marine mammals that have long ivory tusks and lives in arctic environment.

•Kingdom Plantae

-Two big groups: those which do not have tissues to transport water and food (nonvascular) and those that have this transport system (vascular).

IV. Botany - study of plants.

Vascular plants can be:

■

Seedless vascular plants

■

Seed vascular plants

-Angiosperms

-Gymnosperms

Vascular plants have xylem and phloem

Xylem- Conducts most of the water and minerals.

Phloem- Distributes sugars and other organic products.

Seedless vascular plants

Example: ferns

Seed Vascular Plants

• Angiosperms (Flowering plants)
-Most abundant and widely distributed plants.
- Bears fruit to protect the seed.
•Gymnosperms
- Cone bearing plants.
- Gymnosperms have "naked seeds'
- Seeds are not enclosed by fruit.
Example: conifers

Plant Reproduction: Sexual Reproduction in Angiosperms

Flower- reproductive organ of flowering plant

Pollination- transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of the flower

Cross pollination- from one plant to the other plant

Self-pollination- pollination from same flower or plant

Parts of a flower

Sepals, collectively called the CALYX, protect the flower bud before it opens.
- Petals, collectively called the COROLLA.
the petals often attract a particular pollinator.
- Stamen/ male part
Anther
Filament
Pollen grains
- Carpel (Pistil), female part
Stigma
-Ovary becomes the fruit

Style

-Ovule becomes the seed

Plant Reproduction: Asexual Reproduction

Asexual Reproduction- vegetative reproduction

Runners-Horizontal stems, new roots and shoots develop at the node.

Also known as stolon: Example: strawberry Tubers- Underground stems that store food for the plant, the "eyes" are the stem's nodes, and each eye contains a cluster of buds. Example: Potato

Rhizomes- They grow as horizontal underground stem from plant to plant. Example: Ginger

Bulbs- They are shortened, compressed underground stems. Example:

Onion, Garlic

Corms-They are underground stems, Example: Taro (Colocasia)

Underground roots- Carrots, Sweet potatoes (camote), and cassava

VI. Asexual Reproduction in other organisms

Budding

-The parent organism produces offspring by growing a replica in the form of an outgrowth called bud. Example: Hydra, Yeast

Fragmentation

-Separated pieces of the parent organism can develop into an individual Example: Sea star, Flatworms

Binary Fission

-In bacteria

VII. Human Systems

Digestive System

Physical digestion- Chewing of food in the mouth.

■

Chemical digestion- Breakdown of large food molecules by enzymes.

Mouth - start of digestion- mouth and saliva has enzymes

Pharynx (Throat) -

Esophagus- Passes food from your throat to your stomach.

Stomach -

Chyme (mixed food and gastric juices)

Small intestine- Final place of digestion. - absorption of nutrients Has villi (finger like structures). - helps in absorption of nutrients
Large intestine (colon)

Water absorption, production of Vit. K, it ends in rectum.

Anus
Passageway in defecation.
Accessory Organs:

Salivary gland
Liver- Largest internal organ in the body, creates bile (emulsification of fats).
Gall bladder- Stores the bile.
Pancreas- Secrete enzymes for digestion of food.

Circulatory System •

■

Transport blood to other parts of the body.

Heart- Pumps blood
Vein- Brings blood back to the heart

■

Artery- Brings blood away from the heart

Blood- Contains of blood cells (RBC, WBC, Platelets), and plasma.

WBC - Helps fight infections and diseases

plasma - Liquid portion of blood

RBC (red corpuscles) is red because of hemoglobin.

Fibrinogen- protein found in the plasma is responsible for blood clotting.

Vitamin K- vitamin needed for blood clotting.

Calcium- mineral needed for blood clotting.

- Vitamin B12- vitamin needed for RBC production.

Respiratory System

Supplies body with oxygen, and release COz as waste.

Inspiration- Inhale, takes oxygen in
Expiration- Exhale, releases COz out Nose- Warms and moisten air, traps dirt.

Pharynx (throat) - Passageway for both air and food

Epiglottis- Prevents the entrance of food to trachea.

• Larynx- Voice box

vocal cords are found inside the larynx.
Adam's apple in males

Trachea- Windpipe
Lungs- The main organ of respiratory system

Endocrine System

Regulates body and maintains homeostasis through hormones.

Example: Pancreas releases insulin

Reproductive System

Fertilization- union of sex cells (gametes) or union of sperm and egg (ovum) forming zygote.

In vitro fertilization- Sperm and ovum meet inside the test tube.

In vivo fertilization- Sperm and ovum meet inside the body.

Nervous System

Controls sensory and motor functions,
Memory and emotions
Spinal cord and brain.

Neurons- The basic unit of nervous system.
Brain Parts:

Cerebrum: Voluntary activities, largest intelligences, learning. judgement.
Cerebellum: Involuntary, balance, coordination.
Brain stem: Connects brain and spinal cord, involuntary, life sustaining activities: breathing, heart rate, blood pressure, swallowing.
•Midbrain
•Pons

•Medulla oblongata - Regulates breathing

Skeletal System

Protects and supports body parts,

Blood cell production on bone marrows.
Calcium and phosphorous storage.
Bones (206 bones in adult.

Muscular System-

Moves limbs and other parts of the body.
Moves substances through the body.
Three types of Muscular Tissue

Smooth muscle- Involuntary (can be found in stomach and intestines)
Cardiac muscle- Involuntary (can ONLY be found in heart)
Skeletal muscle- Voluntary (can be found in our limbs)

Excretory System

Removes metabolic waste from the body.
Kidney- Main excretory organ; produces urine.

Osmosis- is the movement of water across the cell membrane.
a.

Cell in hypotonic solution

Water comes inside the cell

Clue: Swell, Burst, Lysed

b. Cell in isotonic solution
There will be NO MOVEMENT of WATER

Cell in hypertonic solution

Water goes outside the cell

Clue: Shrink, Shivel, Dehydrated

Integumentary System

Body covering
Protects us from UV rays.
Nail, skin, hair *Skin is the largest organ of the human body.

VIII, Ecology- The study of ecosystem

Ecosystem

■

Relationship between living (biotic) things and non-living (abiotic) things.

Biotic Components of Ecosystem

Producers (autotrophs) - Can make their own food.

• Example: Plants

Consumers (heterotrophs) - Obtain food from another organisms.

• Herbivores- plant eaters
Carnivores- feed on other animals.
Omnivores- animals that feed on both plants and animals.
Scavengers- feed on decaying and necrotic matter (example: vulture).

Decomposers/Saprophytes

Example: bacteria, fungi

Break down dead organisms.

Ecological Relationship

Competition

Predation

Symbiosis-

Mutualism（+，+）

Parasitism (+, -)

Commensalism (+, neither harmed nor benefited)

IX. Genetics - study of genes and heredity.

Gregor Mendel- the Father of genetics.

Phenotype - Physical appearance of an organism (Green, Tall, Short, Straight, Kinky).

Genotype - Genes of a specific character (Gg, gg. HH, hh).

Homozygous: (HH, TT, tt).

Heterozygous: (Hh, Tt).

Mendel's Law of Dominance

Dominant gene (Working gene)

It prevents the expression of the other gene/recessive gene.

Recessive gene (Non-working gene)

The expression is masked by the presence of a dominant gene.

Will only have phenotypic expression if present as a homozygous genotype.

Example:

S- Straight (Dominant)

s- Kinky (Recessive)

SS- Straight
Ss- Straight
ss- Kinky

X. Homologous Structures and Analogous Structures
Homologous organs
organs having similar structure but they have different functions eg. human arm, cat leg, seal flipper, bat wing.
Analogous organs
■
organs having similar functions but they have different structures eg., butterfly's wings and bat's wings.
Biotechnology- Modification of biological process through human intervention.
■

Genetic engineering: GMO (genetically modified organism) or transgenic organism.

Bioremediation- the use of biotechnology to soive environmental problems.

- Example: Oil eating bacteria-used in cleaning up oil spills.

B. Astronomy- study of everything in the universe.
I. Planets
Planetary Motions
REVOLUTION: All planets revolve around the sun in the same direction.

- Revolves eastward/ from west to east/ counterclockwise

ROTATION: Some planets rotate (spin on the axis) in the same direction.

Rotates eastward/ from west to east/ counterclockwise

Except Venus and Uranus

inner Planets/ Terrestrial Planets

1. Mercury
Nearest planet to the sun.

• Fastest revolving/orbiting planet -

2. Venus

The brightest planet in our solar system.
Hottest planet.
Earth's closest neighboring planet.
great red spot - typhoon

3. Earth

• The shape of the earth is oblate spheroid.

4. Mars
Red planet.
Two small moons: Phobos and Deimos.

*Asteroid belt
Located between Mars and jupiter.

Outer Planets/ Gas Planets/ Jovian Planets

5. Jupiter
Largest planet

' 92 moons!
4 Galilean moons: Io, Europa, Ganymede, Callisto.
Ganymede largest moon in the solar system

Saturn
Has spectacular rings made of ice, rocks, dusts
Has 83 moons - Titan - Second Largest moon
Uranus
Neptune

* Pluto- Dwarf planet (1930- 2006)

Found in the Kuiper belt

5 moons: Charon, Nix, Hydra, Kerberos, Sty.

darth's Moon

The Moon (Luna)

1/6 of the Earth's gravity
¼ of the Earth's size
The rotational rate matches the rate of revolution; thus, the same side of the moon is always facing the Earth (Tidal lock).

8 Phases of the Moon

*1. New moon

2. Waxing crescent

3.First quarter

4. Waxing gibbous

5. Full moon

6.Waning gibbous

Last quarter
Waning crescent

Lunar Eclipse- Earth's shadow fall on the Moon

• S-E-M

Solar Eclipse- Moon's shadow fall on the Earth

S-M-E

Spring tide- Highest tide and lowest tide

Neap tides- Have lower high tides and higher low tides.

Perigee- moon closest to the Earth

Apogee- moon farthest from the Earth

Lunar missions

Apollo 11- first successful manned mission to the moon.

Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin-first men on moon (July 16, 1969, 8:18 PM)-

Apollo 11 mission.

II. The Sun

A medium-sized star that has a white color.

• Nuclear fusion- H + H = He + ener

Perihelion- Sun is closest to the Earth.

Aphelion- Sun is farthest from the Earth.

IV. Other objects in the Universe

Asteroid--> Meteoroid -> Meteor -> Meteorite

• Meteoroid- small debris chipped off from an asteroid.

■

Meteor- when it enters the atmosphere.

Meteorite- when it hits the land.

Comets

Small body of rock, iron, ice, methane, ammonia, carbon dioxide that orbit the sun.
The tail points away from the sun.

Halley's comet appears every 76 years.

star

A ball of hydrogen and helium

Blue- Hottest star color
Red- coolest star color

• Constellation: group of stars forming recognizable pattern. Example: Ursa minor, Orion

Proxima Centauri- nearest star
Sirius- brightest star
Northern Star- Polaris of the Ursa Minor (Little Bear)
Stephenson 2-18 - Largest known star.

C. Earth Science

I. Geologic Time Scale

1. Triassic Period (248- 213 m.y.a.)

• Appearance of first dinosaurs and mammals

2. Jurassic Period (213- 145 m.y.a.)

• Age of Dinosaur

II. Lithosphere

The Earth's Layers

Crust- Earth's surface, outermost

layer of the Earth

- Oceanic crust
- Continental crust

Mantle- rocky, made up of Si, 0, Fe, Mg, Ca.

* Lithosphere = crust + upper

mantle

3. Core-innermost central part of the Earth
- The liquid outer core is primarily made up of iron and nickel.
- The inner core is primarily made up of iron and is solid.

Continental drift theory (Alfred Wegener)

Pangaea- super continent.

The evidence is the jigsaw-like shapes of South America and Africa.

Storms

Typhoon- Pacific Ocean

Cyclone- Indian Ocean

Hurricane- Atlantic Ocean

Clouds are made of water and are classified based on their shape and altitude.

Cumulonimbus- clouds that bring thunderstorms.

Philippine Monsoons (seasonal changes due to changing winds)

Amihan- Northeast Monsoon, September to June (cold and dry)

Habagat-Snuthwest Monsoon, July to August (warm and humid)

V. Human Effects on the Environment

Air pollution

Acid Rain- catised by NO, and SOx.

Greenhouse Effect

- Thermal blanket

-Accumulation of COz and other gases which causes the trapping of heat from the sun.

Global warming

Caused by an increase of COz in the atmosphere resulted in a rapid increase in temperature.

Water pollution

Point Source Pollution- the source is easily identified through pipelines from large factories, septic tanks, and others that directly pour wastes into bodies of water.

Non-point Source Pollution- the source of water pollution either cannot be identified or may come from many sources.

Eutrophication- Algal bloom occurs because of the high nutrients in the water. Eventually, oxygen concentration is reduced because of the decomposition of dead algae.

D. Basic Chemistry

I. Atom- Building blocks of matter

• Has protons (+), neutrons (0), and electrons (-)

II. Non-Matter does not occupy a space and does not have a mass.

III. Matter- anything that occupies space (volume) and has mass.

Pure Substance- a classification of matter made up of all the same type of atom or all the same molecules and it exhibit exact properties and composition

Elements

- Substances that are made up of only one type of atom.

Pure substance that CANNOT be broken down by chemical processes into

Simpler substances.

Examples: -

oxygen gas hydrogen gas sodium metal
iodine crystals * pure gold

1180 Element: Oganesson (0g)

Classification of Elements

Metals

Are usually solid and are good conductors of heat and electricity, e.g, copper or iron.

Non-metals

Metals exist as solid except for mercury and gallium.

Are poor conductors of heat and electricity.

• Examples: Oxygen, carbon, bromine, sulfur, and many others.

Metalloids

Have both properties of metals and non-metals.

Compounds

Substances that are formed by the chemical combination of two or more types of atoms. Can be broken down by chemical processes into simpler substances.
Water (H20], which is made of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen.
Carbon dioxide (COz) gas, table sugar (CizHzz Ou) and table salt (NaCl)
Alcohol is a class of organic compound characterized by a hydroxyl bonded to an alkyl group Chemical Bonding
Covalent Bonds

Bonding of two or more non-metals.
Examples: H2O, CH+, COz

Ionic Bonds

Bonding between metals and non-metals.
NaCl (Sodium Chloride), NaF (Sodium Fluoride)

Mixture is a type of matter consisting of two or more different substances that have been combined without chemical bonding taking place, just a physical combination.

Homogenous Mixture

a homogeneous mixture has a single phase.
Example: water + sugar = sugar solution
water + salt =

Heterogenous Mixture

components of the mixture are visually distinguished.

•Example: salad, gravel, macaroni, soup, cake

Colloid- Contains particles that do not settle-
Example: milk, cloud, and fog
Suspension- contains larger particles that eventaully settle out.
Example; chocolate milk, and orange juice

IV. States of Matter

Solid- has definite shape and volume, particles are tightly packed, have very little energy, particles vibrate in place.
Liquid- has definite volume but no definite shape (takes the shape of the container), particles are loosely packed, medium energy level, particles flow around each other.

3. Gas- does not have definite volume and shape, particles move freely and have lots of energy.

Plasma- A very hot gas of nuclei and electrans, superheated gas a form of matter.

5. BEC (Bose-Einstein Condensate) - super cold at absolute zero temperature.

V. Changes in Matter
Physical Change

- the chemical composition remains the same. It Involves only a change in the size, shape, or amount as well as changes in state.
Example: tearing of paper, chopping of woods, breaking of rock.
Changes in the states of matter are examples of physical change.

Freezing-liquid to solid
Melting- solid to liquid
Evaporation- liquid to gas
Condensation- gas to liquid (Ex. Formation of clouds and later the liquid will come down as rain in the process of precipitation)
Sublimation- solid to gas
Deposition- gas to solid

■

Chemical Change

a change wherein the chemical composition has been altered or a ( chemical reaction has taken place.

Example: rusting of iron, metallic iron reacts with oxygen from the atmosphere to form rust

VI. Types of Chemical Reaction

Synthesis

It is a reaction between two or more simple substances to form a single product.

A + B→ AB

Decomposition -
A single reactant is broken down into two or more products.
AB —A + B
Substitution
A more active element replaces a less active element in a compound.
AB + C

AC + B

Double Decomposition
Interchange of two parts of two substances to form two new substances.
AB + CD - AD + CB
〜Enter
Endothermic Reaction (needs energy)
AB + energy A + B
A+B + energy
AB
Exothermic Reaction (releases energy)
AB A + B + energy
A+B AB + energy

VII. Acids and Bases

1. Acids have pH value of below 7

Bases have pH value of above 7
pH value of 7 is neutral

E. Physics- study of matter and energy and their relationship.

* Mass versus Weight
Mass: quantity of matter in an object, can be neasured in kg Weight: the pull of gravity; can be measured in N (Newton)

II. Motion- a continuous change in position.

Newton's Laws of Motion

- 1. First Law: Law of Inertia. Every object continues in its state of rest, or of uniform motion with constant speed in a straight line, unless acted upon by unbalanced external forces impressed upon

Second Law: Law of Acceleration. When enough force is applied, the object will accelerate.
Third Law: Law of Interaction. To every action there is always an opposit equal reaction. Whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the second object exerts an equal and opposite force on the first objree

Ill. Energy- It is the capacity to do work.-

• Potential Energy: Energy at ( rest. Has the potential to fall or move.

Kinetic Energy: Energy in motion
Conservation of Energy: Energy cannot be created or destroyed It is only transformed into another form of energy.
Thermodynamics - study of heat and its transformation to different forms of energy.
Heat / Thermal Energy is transferred from an object with higher temperature to an object with lower temperature.

* Methods of Heat Transfer:

i. Conduction: transmission of heat from two objects with DIRECT
contact

il.

Convection: heat transfer through AIR and water currents (liguid)

iii.

Radiation: heat transfer through RAYS or WAVES emitted by a very hot object.

IV. Light and Sound

1. Light.

The speed of light is 3.0 x 108 m/s.
Faster than sound.
Travels fast in a vacuum (airless space), next in gas, next in liguid, next in solid (preferably transparent).
Scattering of violet and blue frequencies of sunlight in all'directions is what gives the sky its blue color. Scattering of red light during sun set and dawn.
Dispersion is the separation of white light by a prism into bands of colors.
(Rainbow- ROYGBIV).
Diffraction is the bending of light as it passes through an obstruction such as a small slit.

Interference is the overlapping of light waves. The beautiful colors of soap bubbles or on thin film of oil are explained by the interference of light.