Untitled Flashcards Set

2.2: Thinking, Problem Solving, Judgments, and Decision-Making

2.2.A: Explain how psychological concepts and theories account for thinking, problem-solving, judgment, and decision-making

Concepts form the basis of thought. Prototypes are the ideal example for any given concept.

People form and modify schemas, or frameworks for thinking, through assimilation (taking in new information but not changing the schema in light of it) and accommodation (taking in new information and changing the schema to incorporate the new information).

Algorithms address problems by attempting all possible solutions until the correct one is found.

Heuristics address problems by using mental shortcuts to make judgments. Using heuristics can lead to errors in judgment when decisions are made according to prior expectations or stereotypes (representativeness heuristic) or recalling the first or most vivid example that comes to mind (availability heuristic)

Decision making can be influenced by prior experiences that were successful (mental set) or circumstances surrounding a decision (priming and framing).

Cognitive processes such as gamblers fallacy and sunk-cost fallacy can hinder people from making good decisions

Executive functions are cognitive processes that allow individuals to generate, organize, plan and carry out goal-directed behaviors and experience critical thinking.

Creativity is a way of thinking that includes generating novel ideas and engaging in divergent (versus convergent) thinking. Creative thinking is hindered by functional fixedness

Term

Definition in Own Words

Example and/or Application

Cognition

Mental processes involved in gaining knowledge, understanding, and thinking.

Remembering a phone number to dial it later.

Metacognition

Thinking about your own thinking, like being aware of how you learn or solve problems.

Realizing you understand a topic better by writing notes rather than just listening.

Concept

A general idea or category for similar things or ideas.

The concept of "furniture" includes chairs, tables, and sofas.

Prototype

The most typical example of a concept.

A robin is a prototype for the concept of a "bird."

Schema

A mental framework for organizing and interpreting information.

A schema for "restaurant" includes ordering food, eating, and paying.

Assimilation

Taking in new information without changing your schema.

Calling a zebra a horse when you’ve only seen horses before.

Accommodation

Adjusting your schema to include new information.

Learning that a zebra is different from a horse and creating a new category.

Executive functions

Brain processes that help with planning, organizing, and achieving goals.

Planning your schedule to study for a test.

Algorithm

A step-by-step method for solving problems that always gives the correct answer.

Following a recipe to bake a cake.

Heuristic

A shortcut or rule of thumb for solving problems quickly but not always accurately.

Guessing the answer to a question based on previous experiences.

Representative Heuristic

Judging something based on how similar it is to a stereotype.

Assuming someone in a suit is a lawyer.

Availability Heuristic

Judging something based on examples that come to mind easily.

Thinking plane crashes are common after seeing one on the news.

Mental Set

Using solutions that worked in the past without trying new ones.

Always using the same math formula even if another is simpler.

Priming

Exposure to something that influences your decisions or actions later.

Reading about kindness makes you more likely to help others.

Framing

The way information is presented affects decisions.

Saying “90% survival rate” sounds better than “10% death rate.”

Nudge

A small change in how choices are presented to influence decisions.

Placing healthy snacks at eye level in a store to encourage better choices.

Gambler's fallacy

Believing that past events affect future random outcomes.

Thinking a coin flip will land heads because the last three were tails.

Sunk-cost fallacy

Continuing a decision due to already invested time or money.

Finishing a boring movie because you paid for the ticket.

Functional fixedness

Seeing objects only for their intended use.

Not realizing a book can be used to prop open a door.

Insight

A sudden realization of the solution to a problem.

Figuring out the answer to a riddle after thinking about it.

Confirmation Bias

Focusing on information that supports your beliefs.

Only reading articles that agree with your political views.

Fixation

Being stuck on one way of solving a problem.

Trying to solve a puzzle the same wrong way repeatedly.

Intuition

Making decisions based on gut feelings instead of logic.

Choosing a certain path because it “feels right.”

Overconfidence

Overestimating your knowledge or abilities.

Thinking you’ll ace a test without studying.

Belief perseverance

Sticking to your beliefs even when proven wrong.

Believing a product works despite evidence it doesn’t.

Creativity

Thinking of new and original ideas.

Inventing a new way to solve a common problem.

Divergent Thinking

Generating multiple solutions to a problem.

Brainstorming ways to improve recycling in a city.

Convergent Thinking

Narrowing down multiple ideas to find the best solution.

Choosing the best method from a list of ideas to solve a problem.

2.8: Intelligence & Achievement

2.8.A Explain how modern and historical theories describe intelligence.

Throughout history, consensus about how to define and measure intelligence continues to be elusive and can be subject to bias. Researchers debate whether intelligence is a general ability (called g) or is comprised of multiple abilities. 

Term

Definition in Own Words

Example and/or Application

Intelligence

The ability to learn, understand, and solve problems

Solving a complex math problem or learning a new language.

General Intelligence (g)

A single underlying ability that influences performance across all tasks.

A person who excels in academics often does well in puzzles and games too.

Factor Analysis

A statistical method to identify related abilities or skills.

Grouping math, logic, and problem-solving as cognitive abilities.

Fluid Intelligence (Gf)

The ability to think quickly and solve new problems without relying on past knowledge.

Figuring out how to use a new app without instructions.

Crystallized Intelligence (Gc)

Knowledge and skills acquired through experience and education.

Knowing historical dates or solving familiar word problems.

Cattell-Horn-Carroll Theory

A theory combining fluid and crystallized intelligence with multiple cognitive abilities.

Recognizing problem-solving as separate from memory in intelligence tests.

Multiple Intelligences

A theory suggesting intelligence includes many abilities like musical, spatial, or interpersonal skills.

A musician showing musical intelligence or a counselor demonstrating interpersonal intelligence.

Savant Syndrome

When a person with mental disabilities has an exceptional skill in one area.

A person with autism being able to play complex piano pieces by ear.

Grit

Perseverance and passion for long-term goals.

A student studying for years to become a doctor despite challenges.

Emotional Intelligence

The ability to understand and manage your emotions and those of others.

Comforting a friend who is upset or staying calm during a stressful situation.

2.8 B- Explain how intelligence is measured. 

Early formal intelligence tests yielded an intelligence quotient (IQ), which divided mental age by chronological age. In modern times, IQ scores are often used to identify students for educational services.

All psychological assessments, including intelligence tests, should adhere to sound psychometric principles to be considered useful.

A test is said to be standardized when it is administered using consistent procedures and environments

A test is considered valid if it measures what it is designed to measure. Types of validity include construct and predictive.

A test is considered reliable if it yields similar results each time it is administered. Types of reliability include test-retest and split-half.

Researchers strive to develop assessments of intelligence that are socio-culturally responsive to reduce stereotype threat and potential inequity that may occur due to stereotype lift

Term

Definition in Own Words

Example and/or Application

Stanford-Binet

One of the first intelligence tests, measuring reasoning and problem-solving skills.

A child taking the Stanford-Binet test to assess cognitive abilities for school placement.

Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

A score that measures a person’s mental abilities compared to others.

An IQ of 100 represents average intelligence.

Mental Age

The age level at which someone performs on an intelligence test.

A 10-year-old performing at the level of a 12-year-old has a mental age of 12.

Wechsler-Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)

A widely used test for measuring adult intelligence, focusing on verbal and performance skills.

A psychologist administering the WAIS to assess cognitive function in adults.

Psychometrics

The field of study focused on measuring psychological traits, like intelligence.

Designing tests to assess memory or problem-solving abilities.

Standardization

Ensuring a test is consistent and fair for everyone who takes it.

Giving the same instructions and time limits during an IQ test.

Normal Curve

A bell-shaped graph showing how traits like intelligence are distributed in a population.

Most people scoring near the average on an IQ test, with fewer scoring very high or low.

Valid

A test measures what it’s supposed to measure.

An IQ test accurately assessing reasoning skills, not physical ability.

Content Validity

The test covers all the important parts of what it’s supposed to measure.

A math test including algebra, geometry, and statistics questions.

Construct Validity

The test measures the concept it claims to measure.

An emotional intelligence test accurately assessing the ability to manage emotions.

Predictive Validity

The test predicts future performance or behavior.

An aptitude test predicting success in a specific career.

Reliable

A test gives consistent results over time.

Scoring similarly on an IQ test taken multiple times.

Test-Retest Reliability

Getting the same results when retaking a test.

A person scoring 110 on an IQ test both times they take it.

Split-half Reliability

Consistency in a test when comparing two halves of the questions.

Scoring equally well on the first and second halves of a math test

Stereotype threat

Anxiety about confirming a negative stereotype can affect performance.

A student underperforming on a math test because they fear confirming a gender stereotype.

Stereotype lift

Performing better because of a positive stereotype.

A student excelling in science because of the belief that their ethnic group is good at STEM.

2.8 C- Explain how systemic issues relate to the quantitative and qualitative uses of intelligence assessments.

IQ scores across much of the world have generally increased over time (FlynnEffect) due to societal factors, such as higher socioeconomic status and access to better health care and better nutrition. 

IQ scores tend to vary more within a group than between groups. Personal and sociocultural biases can impact the interpretation of individual IQ scores and the score’s relationship with other outcomes. Poverty, discrimination, and educational inequities can negatively influence intelligence scores of individuals and societal groups around the world.

Scores from intelligence tests have been used to limit access to jobs, military ranks, educational institutions, and immigration to the US.

Term

Definition in Own Words

Example and/or Application

Flynn effect

The rise in average IQ scores over generations due to societal improvements.

Better nutrition and education increasing IQ scores over time.

Cross-sectional study

A study comparing different groups at the same time.

Comparing the math skills of 10-year-olds and 15-year-olds in 2024.

Longitudinal study

A study observing the same group over a long period.

Tracking a group of students’ test scores from age 5 to 18.

Cohort

A group of people studied or sharing a characteristic.

The graduating class of 2025 being studied for career outcomes.

2.8.D- Explain how academic achievement is measured and experienced as compared to intelligence. 

Some academic tests attempt to measure what someone knows (achievement tests) or predict how someone will perform in the future (aptitude tests). 

People’s beliefs about whether intelligence is fixed from birth (fixed mindset) or malleable due to experience (growth mindset) can affect academic achievement.

Term

Definition in Own Words

Example and/or Application

Achievement Tests

Tests measuring knowledge or skills in a specific subject.

A standardized reading test measuring comprehension levels.

Aptitude Tests

tests predicting future performance or ability.

A college entrance exam like the SAT

Fixed Mindset

Belief that intelligence and abilities are unchangeable.

Thinking you’re bad at math and cannot improve.

Growth Mindset

Belief that intelligence and abilities can develop with effort.

Practicing math regularly to improve your skills.