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Chapter 24: Solutions, Acids, and Bases

Modern World History Honors - Latin America

Based on the sources and our conversation history, here is a synthesis of the key information regarding the Monroe Doctrine, the Latin American Revolutions (South America and Haiti), key leaders like Toussaint Louverture and Simón Bolívar, Cuba, the Cold War in Latin America, and the Cuban Missile Crisis:

Latin American Independence Movements (South America and Haiti)

Towards the end of the 18th century, events in Spain, including its alliance with France and Napoleon I's rise to power, weakened the Spanish throne's effectiveness and its ability to control its colonies. This instability created an opportunity for the Creoles—people born in South America of Spanish parentage who were landowners, mine owners, and merchants but not allowed to hold certain government or church posts—to seek leadership.
Northern South America: Revolutions began in 1811 with a newly established Creole-dominated government in Venezuela declaring independence. However, this was short-lived as royalists—Spaniards and colonists loyal to Spain—regained control. A decade of conflict followed. Patriot leaders like Simón Bolívar led the fight and eventually put down the final stronghold of Spanish resistance in the North in June 1821. This directly resulted in the provinces that would become Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, and Panama emerging as independent republics.
Southern South America: Creole-dominated groups aimed to secure control of the entire region. This led to the quick formation of the independent republic of Paraguay in 1811. Expelling Spanish loyalists from Argentina took several years, with Argentina claiming its independence as a republic in 1816. Patriot military leaders, including José de San Martín, made brilliant strategic moves to subdue Spanish resistance in the mountainous regions and on the western coast, leading to Chile gaining independence in 1818 and Peru in 1821.
Mexico: The revolution here was a social as well as a political effort, involving Creoles, Indigenous peoples, and mixed-blood peoples. Taking advantage of a revolution in Spain in 1820, factions united under Creole officer Augustín de Iturbide, who reconciled with rebel leader Vicente Guerrero. They squelched royalist holdouts and proclaimed Mexican independence on September 28, 1821. The new "state" initially included the captaincy general of Guatemala, but Iturbide couldn't maintain power.
Central America: The captaincy general of Guatemala, comprising modern Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, El Salvador, and Guatemala, declared its own independence and formed the United Provinces of Central America in 1823. This organization lacked a central government and military structure and soon dissolved, leaving five independent nations by 1837–1838.
Brazil: Unlike the Spanish colonies, Brazil's path to independence was smooth as it was a Portuguese colony. The Portuguese royal family's presence in Brazil after fleeing Napoleon in 1808 boosted the colony, but Creoles resented Portuguese immigrants. A revolution in Portugal in 1820 caused fear among Brazilians of being "demoted" to colonial status again. They urged the prince regent's son, Pedro I, to resist Portuguese demands and become Brazil's leader, leading to Brazil becoming a constitutional empire in December 1822.
The Haitian Revolution: This revolution began in 1791 on the island of Hispaniola, in the French colony of Saint-Domingue, which was France's most profitable colony, producing vast amounts of coffee and sugar using enslaved African labor under brutal conditions. The revolution formally started with a gathering of enslaved people in August 1791, aiming to disrupt the slave economy by burning plantations and fields. The French government responded by sending ships and troops, but couldn't stop the revolts. Amid the fighting, a formally enslaved man named Toussaint Louverture emerged as a brilliant leader, playing French, Spanish, and British forces against each other. In February 1794, the French National Assembly, losing the colony, abolished slavery, leading Louverture to ally with France. However, when Napoleon rose to power, he saw Louverture as a rival and reinstated slavery in 1802. Louverture was arrested and deported. This prompted a unified front of former enslaved people and free people of color who drove out the French by November 1803. Haiti officially declared independence in January 1804, becoming the first nation to do so through a successful slave revolt. This stunned the world, but Haiti faced punishment from world powers, including a heavy indemnity demanded by France in 1825 for recognition, which forced Haiti into debt for over a century.

The Monroe Doctrine

The Monroe Doctrine was a seminal principle of U.S. foreign policy, enunciated by President James Monroe on December 2, 1823. It was passed after the end of the Napoleonic Wars and the independence movements in Latin America.
The doctrine aimed to prevent further European colonization and interference in the Western Hemisphere, particularly in the newly independent Latin American nations. The U.S. perceived a threat from European powers, including France and Spain, possibly seeking to return colonial rule to these new republics.
Its three primary positions were: 1) European powers should not establish new colonies in the Americas; 2) European monarchs should not meddle in the internal politics of the Americas, especially to overthrow republics; and 3) the United States would not interfere in European internal politics. Monroe warned that European interference would be seen as "dangerous to our peace and security".
Initially, the U.S. lacked the military power to strictly enforce the doctrine, and European powers continued to meddle.
The doctrine was transformed into a stronger principle later in the 19th century. President James K. Polk invoked it in 1845 during the Texas dispute with Mexico, enlarging its principles by prohibiting European powers from acquiring territories in the Americas, even through peaceful transfers, but allowing such transfers to the U.S. (like Texas). The outcome of the Mexican-American War (1846-1848) and the resulting territorial acquisition for the U.S. further supported the doctrine.
It was challenged during the American Civil War when France invaded Mexico, but U.S. diplomacy guided by Monroe Doctrine principles led to France's withdrawal in 1867. In 1895, Secretary of State Richard Olney explicitly invoked the doctrine in a dispute with Great Britain, asserting U.S. authority in the hemisphere.
The Monroe Doctrine was also invoked by expansionists favoring the Spanish-American War in 1898. This conflict led to the U.S. acquiring territories from Spain (Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico) and increasing its presence and interests in Cuba.
By 1898, the Monroe Doctrine had transformed from a demand of European nonintervention to a justification for U.S. intervention in the Americas to preempt European interference. This transformation was made more explicit by the Roosevelt Corollary in 1904, which stated the U.S. would "exercise an international police power" in the Americas to prevent European intervention, often using force ("Big Stick Diplomacy") to protect U.S. economic interests.

Cuba and the United States

Cuba was a Spanish colony that saw increasing oppression in the early 19th century. Revolutionary movements against Spanish rule occurred throughout the late 19th century.
In 1898, the United States entered a war with Spain over its colonial possession of Cuba, with the stated motive to "free" the Cubans from Spanish oppression. This conflict was favored by expansionists who invoked and extended the Monroe Doctrine.
The Spanish-American War resulted in Spain relinquishing its sovereignty over Cuba. While the U.S. did not annex Cuba, it occupied the island and, in the early 20th century, Cuba became a protectorate of the United States.
The Teller Amendment (1898) expressed U.S. interest in Cuban independence without annexation, unless "pacification" was necessary, setting the stage for U.S. occupation.
The Platt Amendment (1901) was heavily criticized for giving the U.S. the right to intervene in Cuban affairs "to keep order or maintain independence" and to lease sites for naval bases (like Guantánamo Bay), granting the U.S. immense governing power. The Platt Amendment was revoked in 1934, though the Guantanamo Bay lease was extended.
Cuba experienced periods of corrupt and despotic governments. In 1952, Fulgencio Batista overthrew the government and established authoritarian rule, becoming a U.S.-backed dictator.
In 1959, the Cuban Revolution led by Fidel Castro overthrew the U.S.-backed dictator Fulgencio Batista. The new regime exhibited distinct leftist leanings, seized U.S. properties, and broke ties with the United States in January 1961. Castro vowed Cuba's allegiance to the Soviet Union.

The Cold War in Latin America

During the Cold War (1945–1991), the United States made Latin America a key battleground in its global fight against communism. U.S. foreign policy used strategies like containment and the domino theory to justify backing anti-communist regimes.
The U.S. supported some right-wing extremist leaders and backed authoritarian regimes and dictators who opposed communism, viewing them as a "lesser evil". Examples include Fulgencio Batista (Cuba), Rafael Trujillo (Dominican Republic), Augusto Pinochet (Chile), and Alfredo Stroessner (Paraguay). These leaders often used military force, fear, censorship, and violence to stay in power, claiming to protect their countries from internal communist threats, a concept promoted by U.S. training in anti-subversion tactics at institutions like the School of the Americas.
The U.S. formed treaties like the Rio Pact and created the Organization of American States (OAS) to strengthen cooperation and win support.
The 1959 Cuban Revolution emphasized for the U.S. government the need for increased intervention. In response, President Kennedy established the Alliance for Progress in 1961, aiming to promote development and reforms through aid to counter communism. However, results were limited as local elites resisted change, and economic inequality persisted. Aid was later reduced.
The CIA carried out covert operations to counter perceived communist threats. Examples include helping overthrow President Arbenz in Guatemala in 1954 and President Allende in Chile in 1973.
In Guatemala, the CIA helped overthrow President Arbenz after he introduced land reforms affecting the U.S.-based United Fruit Company. He was replaced by a dictator whose regime violently curbed unrest, resulting in over 200,000 deaths over three decades.
In Chile, the CIA supported efforts to prevent Salvador Allende, a democratically elected socialist president, from gaining or staying in power. The U.S. supported the military coup that overthrew Allende in 1973, bringing authoritarian general Augusto Pinochet to power. Pinochet's regime was highly repressive with widespread human rights abuses, but the U.S. initially supported it, particularly as Pinochet's economic policies conformed to neoliberal capitalism.
These U.S. actions caused lasting distrust and resentment across Latin America, with many viewing the U.S. as interfering and imperialist. Resistance movements like the Cuban Revolution gained popularity, and figures like Che Guevara became symbols of anti-U.S. resistance.
Authoritarian regimes, though appearing stable due to military control, often lacked popular support and used force, leading to instability, protests, violence, and uprisings. Removing elected leaders and replacing them with dictators often caused instability rather than building strong democracies. The damage caused by years of dictatorship took decades to repair.

Cuban Missile Crisis

Following the failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion, Cuba's strategic significance in the Cold War increased.
In October 1962, the Cuban Missile Crisis brought the world dangerously close to nuclear war.
The crisis began when the U.S. discovered that the Soviet Union was building missile bases in Cuba capable of reaching U.S. targets.
President John F. Kennedy demanded the Soviets dismantle the bases and ordered a naval "quarantine" or blockade around Cuba.
After a tense 10-day international crisis, Kennedy negotiated with Soviet premier Nikita Khrushchev, and the Soviets agreed to remove the missiles in return for a U.S. promise not to attack Cuba. This narrowly avoided World War III.
The crisis set the stage for increased Soviet military aid to Cuba. The failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion and the subsequent missile crisis led to closer scrutiny of U.S. intelligence and may have contributed to Kennedy's cautious approach during the missile crisis. The crisis's aftermath influenced U.S.-Soviet relations for years, contributing to efforts like détente.

In summary, the Latin American independence movements fundamentally altered the political landscape, ending European colonial rule and giving rise to new nations. The U.S. responded to these changes, particularly the potential for European powers to re-intervene, with the Monroe Doctrine, which evolved from a principle of non-intervention to a justification for U.S. intervention in the hemisphere. Cuba's history exemplifies this, moving from a Spanish colony through revolution and U.S. intervention to become a U.S. protectorate. During the Cold War, Latin America became a key arena for the U.S. fight against communism, often leading the U.S. to support authoritarian regimes and intervene in the internal affairs of countries like Cuba (Bay of Pigs) and Chile. The Cuban Revolution and the subsequent Cuban Missile Crisis were central events in this Cold War dynamic, highlighting the stakes of superpower rivalry in the region.

Timeline:

Here is an overly simplified timeline highlighting main occurrences in Latin America and relating to US involvement across the 18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, based on the sources and our conversation:

18th Century

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Late 18th century: Spain's throne effectiveness was reduced after allying with France1..., and Napoleon gained power, leading to political changes in Spain1....

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1791: The Haitian Revolution began on the island of Hispaniola, with enslaved people burning plantations to disrupt the slave economy3....

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1794: The French National Assembly abolished slavery in response to the revolts6....

19th Century

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Early 19th century: Spanish rule in Cuba grew increasingly oppressive8.

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1804: Haiti officially declared independence from France9..., stunning the world but leading to punishment from great powers9....

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1811-1821: Various regions in Northern South America, led by patriot leaders like Simón Bolívar, fought against and eventually overcame the strong presence of Spanish resistance15..., leading to the emergence of independent republics like Ecuador, Colombia, Venezuela, and Panama15....

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1810-1821: Revolutions in Southern South America led by Creole-dominated groups and military leaders like José de San Martín resulted in the independence of countries like Paraguay (1811), Argentina (1816), Chile (1818), and Peru (1821)17.... Mexico also proclaimed independence in 182119....

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1823: President James Monroe enunciated the Monroe Doctrine, a key principle of US foreign policy aimed at preventing further European colonization and interference in the Western Hemisphere21....

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1845: President James K. Polk invoked and enlarged the Monroe Doctrine during the Texas dispute with Mexico, prohibiting European powers from acquiring territories in the Americas24....

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1846-1848: The Mexican-American War resulted in significant territorial acquisition for the US and reinforced the principles of the Monroe Doctrine26.

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1861-1865: The American Civil War occurred, during which France invaded Mexico and installed a puppet monarchy27....

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1867: US diplomacy guided by Monroe Doctrine principles led to France withdrawing its forces from Mexico27....

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1868-1898: Cuba experienced revolutionary movements against Spanish rule, including the Ten Years' War (starting 1868)8 and a second movement led by José Martí (starting 1895)29....

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1895: Secretary of State Richard Olney explicitly invoked the Monroe Doctrine in a dispute with Great Britain over the British Guiana/Venezuela boundary, asserting US authority in the hemisphere27....

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1898: The United States entered a war with Spain over Cuba, with the stated motive to "free" Cubans30.... The war led to the US acquiring territories like the Philippines, Guam, and Puerto Rico34, and Cuba came under US influence, becoming a protectorate33.... The Teller Amendment expressed US interest in Cuban independence without annexation33....

20th Century

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Early 20th century: Cuba became a protectorate of the United States33..., and the Platt Amendment gave the US significant power to intervene in Cuban affairs36.... This period saw the rise of dictatorial politicians in the Caribbean basin, often supported by the US38....

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1904: President Theodore Roosevelt issued the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine, stating the US would "exercise an international police power" in the Americas to prevent European intervention, reflecting "Big Stick Diplomacy"34.... This gave the US a basis to use force to protect its economic interests in the Americas44....

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1945-1991: The Cold War made Latin America a battleground for the US global fight against communism46.... The US backed anti-communist regimes, including authoritarian ones, through strategies like containment and covert operations46....

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1954: The CIA carried out covert operations, such as helping overthrow President Arbenz in Guatemala46....

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1959: The Cuban Revolution overthrew the U.S.-backed dictator Fulgencio Batista53.... Led by Fidel Castro, the new government broke ties with the US and allied with the Soviet Union53....

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1961: The Bay of Pigs invasion, an unsuccessful US-supported attempt by Cuban exiles to overthrow Castro, failed and embarrassed the US54.... President Kennedy established the Alliance for Progress, aiming to promote development in Latin America46....

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1962: The Cuban Missile Crisis brought the US and the Soviet Union dangerously close to nuclear war over Soviet missiles in Cuba62.... Cuba was suspended from the OAS65....

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1970: Salvador Allende, a socialist, was democratically elected president of Chile70.... The CIA worked to prevent his rule and supported his opposition70....

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1973: Allende was overthrown by a military coup led by General Augusto Pinochet46.... Pinochet established a repressive authoritarian regime that the US initially supported73....

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End of the Cold War (early 1990s): US-Latin American relations transformed as anticommunism became less central76. Cuba faced economic depression after the end of Soviet aid77.

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Post-Cold War: Cuba continued to resist US aggression76, though relations began to normalize later in the century76. Many Latin American countries struggled with the legacies of authoritarianism and human rights abuses64....