Biology exam

1. Heterotrophic: Organisms that obtain their energy by consuming organic matter, not by producing it themselves. All animals, including sponges, are heterotrophic.

2. Choanoflagellates: Single-celled or colonial flagellates closely related to animals but not considered animals themselves. They resemble choanocytes in sponges.

3. Choanocytes: Specialized cells in sponges with a collar and flagellum that capture food particles from the water.

4. Porocytes: Tube-like cells in sponges that create openings (pores) for water to flow into the sponge body.

5. Amoebocytes: Mobile cells within a sponge that distribute nutrients and can differentiate into other cell types.

6. Sclerocytes: Cells in sponges responsible for secreting spicules (skeletal elements).

7. Spicules: Structural elements in sponges that form part of the sponge’s skeleton, providing rigidity and defense.

8. Spongocytes: Cells in sponges that secrete spongin, a flexible protein component of the sponge skeleton.

9. Secondary metabolites: Compounds not essential for basic metabolic processes but may serve defensive or ecological roles, such as toxins in sponges.

10. Trade-Offs: Evolutionary compromises where organisms allocate resources to optimize specific functions, often sacrificing others.

11. Sessile: Organisms that are fixed in place and do not move, such as adult sponges.

Lecture on CTENOPHORA AND CNIDARIA

1. Benthic: Refers to organisms living on the seafloor or in its sediments.

2. Pelagic: Refers to organisms that live in the open ocean, away from the seafloor.

3. Polyp vs. Medusa: Two life stages in cnidarians; polyps are sessile, while medusae are free-swimming.

4. Gastrovascular Cavity: The central digestive compartment in cnidarians and flatworms.

5. Nematocyst: A specialized stinging structure within cnidocytes used for capturing prey or defense.

6. Cnidocyte: A cell in cnidarians that contains nematocysts and plays a role in prey capture and defense.

7. Zooxanthellae: Symbiotic algae living within coral tissues, providing energy through photosynthesis.

8. Coral Bleaching: The loss of zooxanthellae from coral tissues, often due to stress, resulting in coral losing color and energy source.

Lecture on PLATYHELMINTHES

1. Complex Life Cycle: A life cycle involving multiple developmental stages, often with more than one host species.

2. Trematode Life Cycle: Trematodes like Schistosoma undergo a life cycle that includes multiple larval stages and hosts, often involving mollusks and vertebrates.

3. Cestode Life Cycle: Tapeworms, such as Taenia, undergo a complex life cycle, often involving intermediate hosts, to reach adult stages in the intestine of the final host.

4. Scolex: The head-like structure of a tapeworm with hooks or suckers for attachment.

5. Proglottid: A segment in tapeworms containing reproductive organs, which detaches when mature.

Lectures on GENERAL ANIMAL TERMS AND BODY PLANS

1. Metazoa: A major division of the animal kingdom encompassing all multicellular animals.

2. Eumetazoa: Animals with true tissues, including all animals except sponges and a few other simple forms.

3. Radial vs. Bilateral Symmetry: Radial symmetry allows body parts to radiate from a central point; bilateral symmetry divides the body into two mirror-image halves.

4. Ectoderm, Mesoderm, Endoderm: Primary germ layers that give rise to tissues and organs in triploblastic animals.

5. Diploblastic vs. Triploblastic: Diploblastic organisms have two germ layers (ectoderm and endoderm), while triploblastic organisms have three, adding the mesoderm.

6. Examples of derivations of tissue layers: Specialized tissues and organs arise from the three germ layers, with each layer contributing to different structures.

For a more in-depth exploration of each term, feel free to ask for specific clarifications on any concepts.

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Continuing with the definitions for the remaining terms:

Coelom and Body Cavities

1. Coelom: A fluid-filled body cavity entirely lined by mesodermal tissue, providing space for internal organs and facilitating movement and organ development.

2. Body Cavities: Coelomate vs. Acoelomate: Coelomates have a true coelom lined entirely by mesoderm (e.g., annelids, mollusks), while acoelomates lack a coelom and have solid bodies without a fluid-filled cavity (e.g., flatworms).

Lecture on NEMERTEA AND ANNELIDA

1. Lophophore: A crown of ciliated tentacles around the mouth used for feeding, found in certain aquatic invertebrates like brachiopods and bryozoans.

2. Zooid: An individual animal in a colonial organism, such as those in bryozoans, which are often connected to each other and function as a colony.

3. Alimentary Canal: A complete digestive tract with a mouth and an anus, allowing for more efficient digestion and nutrient absorption.

4. Trochophore: A free-swimming larval stage in some annelids and mollusks characterized by bands of cilia.

5. Proboscis: An extensible tubular organ used for feeding or defense, especially prominent in ribbon worms (Nemertea).

6. Chaetae (Setae): Bristle-like structures made of chitin in annelids, aiding in locomotion and anchoring the worm in the soil.

7. Septum: Internal wall separating segments in segmented worms, allowing for more controlled movement.

8. Soil Cycling: The process by which soil organisms decompose organic material, recycling nutrients in the ecosystem.

9. Detritivore: An organism that feeds on decomposing organic matter, playing a crucial role in nutrient cycling.

10. Parapodia: Paired appendages in polychaete worms that assist in locomotion and gas exchange.

11. Environment of the Deep Sea: A habitat characterized by extreme pressures, low temperatures, and limited light, where unique organisms have adapted to survive.

12. Biomass: The total mass of living organisms in a particular area or ecosystem.

13. Whale Fall Communities: Complex ecosystems that develop around the carcasses of whales on the ocean floor, providing food for deep-sea organisms.

14. Haemophagic (Hematophagic): Organisms that feed on blood, such as leeches.

15. Hirudin: An anticoagulant protein secreted by leeches that prevents blood from clotting.

Lecture on MOLLUSKA

1. Infaunal: Organisms that live buried in sediment, such as clams.

2. Radula: A toothed, chitinous ribbon in mollusks used for scraping or cutting food.

3. Magnetite: A mineral used by some mollusks in their radula for reinforcement.

4. Chitin: A tough, flexible material forming the exoskeleton of arthropods and the radula of mollusks.

5. Mantle: A layer of tissue in mollusks that secretes the shell and plays a role in respiration and excretion.

6. Incurrent Siphon: A structure that brings water into the body of a mollusk for filter feeding.

7. Excurrent Siphon: A structure that expels water from a mollusk after filtering.

8. Gills: Respiratory structures in aquatic animals that extract oxygen from water.

9. Ink Sac: An organ in cephalopods like squids and octopuses that releases ink as a defense mechanism.

10. Biostratigraphy: The study of rock layers (strata) and the fossils within them to understand geological and evolutionary history.

11. Nacre Layer (Aragonite Crystals): The iridescent inner layer of mollusk shells, often referred to as mother-of-pearl.

12. Invasive Species: Non-native species that cause ecological or economic harm in new environments.

13. Ballast Water: Water carried in ships' ballast tanks, which can introduce invasive species when discharged.

Lecture on NEMATODA AND ARTHROPODA

1. Ecdysis, Metamorphosis, Instar: Ecdysis is the process of molting the exoskeleton in arthropods; metamorphosis is the developmental transformation into a new stage; instar is the stage between molts.

2. Nematode Life Cycle (e.g., Trichinella and Dirofilaria): Nematodes have complex life cycles often involving hosts. Trichinella, for example, infects muscle tissues, while Dirofilaria can cause heartworm in animals.

3. Chelicera: A pair of appendages in arachnids used for feeding, often with fangs.

4. Head, Thorax vs. Cephalothorax: The head and thorax are separate in insects, while in arachnids, the cephalothorax combines the head and thorax.

5. Abdomen: The posterior body segment in arthropods that houses organs.

6. Spinnerets: Silk-spinning organs in spiders used for web construction.

7. Silk Gland: Glands in spiders and some insects that produce silk.

8. Food Web: A complex network of feeding interactions in an ecosystem.

9. Pollination: The process of transferring pollen from male to female plant structures, often aided by insects.

10. Forensic Entomology: The study of insects to aid in legal investigations, especially in determining time of death.

11. Disease Vectors: Organisms that transmit pathogens, such as mosquitoes spreading malaria.

Let me know if you need further explanations on these or additional terms!

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Lecture on HEMICHORDATA AND ECHINODERMATA

1. Zygote: A fertilized egg cell formed by the union of sperm and egg, marking the beginning of an organism’s development.

2. Blastula: An early stage in embryonic development where cells form a hollow ball.

3. Gastrulation: The process following blastula formation where cells begin to form distinct tissue layers.

4. Developmental Differences between Protostomes and Deuterostomes: In protostomes, the blastopore becomes the mouth, and in deuterostomes, it becomes the anus. This distinction impacts the entire developmental pattern.

5. Radial Cleavage: A type of embryonic cell division in deuterostomes where cells divide in a pattern perpendicular to the previous layer.

6. Spiral Cleavage: A characteristic of protostomes where cells divide at an angle, forming a spiral arrangement.

7. Blastopore Fate: In protostomes, the blastopore develops into the mouth; in deuterostomes, it becomes the anus.

8. Enterocoelous: A process where the coelom (body cavity) forms from pouches off the gut, typical of deuterostomes.

9. Schizocoelous: A coelom formation process where the cavity splits from solid masses of mesoderm, seen in protostomes.

10. Madreporite: A sievelike structure on the surface of echinoderms through which water enters the water vascular system.

11. Water Vascular System: A unique hydraulic system in echinoderms (e.g., starfish) used for locomotion, feeding, and respiration.

12. Ampulla of the Water Vascular System: Muscular sacs that control the movement of tube feet in echinoderms by contracting to push water into the tube feet.

13. Tube Feet: Small, flexible appendages in echinoderms used for movement and capturing food.

14. Keystone Species: A species that plays a crucial role in maintaining the structure of an ecosystem, such that its removal would have a significant impact on the ecosystem.

Lecture on CHORDATA 1

1. Notochord: A flexible, rod-shaped structure that provides support in all chordates, often replaced by the vertebral column in vertebrates.

2. Dorsal Hollow Nerve Cord: A tube of nervous tissue that runs along the back, characteristic of chordates, developing into the spinal cord in vertebrates.

3. Post-anal Tail: An extension of the body that continues past the anus, present in all chordates at some stage of development.

4. Pharyngeal Gill Slits (or Clefts): Openings in the pharynx that serve various functions in different chordates, including feeding and respiration.

5. Cranium: The skull or braincase that encases and protects the brain in vertebrates.

6. Vertebral Column: A series of vertebrae that form the backbone, replacing the notochord in most adult vertebrates.

7. Jaws and Their Origins from Pharyngeal Gill Arch Cartilage: Jaws evolved from modified gill arches in early vertebrates, providing a major evolutionary advantage in feeding.

8. Mineralized Skeleton: The hard, calcium-based internal skeleton found in vertebrates.

9. Appendicular Skeleton: The portion of the skeleton that includes limbs and their supporting girdles.

10. Pectoral Fins: The front pair of fins on fish, homologous to forelimbs in tetrapods.

11. Pelvic Fins: The rear pair of fins in fish, homologous to hindlimbs in tetrapods.

12. Origin of Mineralized Gnathostome Teeth: Teeth evolved from bony scales that covered the skin of early jawed vertebrates.

13. Placoid Scales: Tooth-like scales found in cartilaginous fish (like sharks), made of dentin and enamel.

Lecture on CHORDATA 2

1. Lung: An organ for gas exchange in air-breathing vertebrates.

2. Swim Bladder: A gas-filled organ in fish that helps regulate buoyancy.

3. Fin Rays: Bony or cartilaginous spines that support the fins in fish.

4. Ray-finned Fish Diversity (Freshwater vs. Marine): Ray-finned fish exhibit a wide range of diversity and adaptations between freshwater and marine environments.

5. Origin of Tetrapod Limbs (Development of Digits from Fin Rays): The evolution of limbs with digits from the fin rays of ancestral lobe-finned fish, a crucial adaptation for terrestrial life.

6. Origin of Neck (Separation of Pectorals from Head): The evolution of a neck allowed for independent movement of the head, a key feature in tetrapods.

7. Granular Glands: Skin glands that produce toxins or other defensive chemicals in amphibians.

8. Mucous Glands: Skin glands that produce mucus, helping to keep amphibian skin moist for respiration and protection.

Lecture on CHORDATA 3

1. Amniotic Egg: An egg with a protective shell and specialized membranes that support embryonic development, an adaptation for life on land.

2. Osteoderms: Bony deposits in the skin, providing protection in certain reptiles like crocodiles.

3. Keratin Basis for Reptile Scales, Feathers, and Hair: Keratin is a structural protein that forms reptilian scales, feathers in birds, and hair in mammals.

4. Skeletal Basis of Turtle Shells: The turtle shell is a modified ribcage and vertebral column fused with dermal bones, providing protection.

5. Hair: A keratin-based structure found in mammals, serving roles in insulation and sensory function.

6. Mammary Glands: Milk-producing glands in mammals, enabling nourishment of young.

7. Cloaca: A common cavity in some vertebrates where the digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts empty.

8. Laurasia and Gondwana: Two supercontinents that existed during the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic eras, whose separation influenced species distribution.

9. Marsupium: The pouch in marsupials where the underdeveloped young continue to grow after birth.

10. Convergence: The evolution of similar traits in unrelated species due to similar environmental pressures.

11. Terrestrial to Aquatic Transitions in Mammals: Some mammals, such as cetaceans, evolved from land-dwelling ancestors to fully aquatic life.

12. Powered Flight in Vertebrates (Pterosaurs vs. Birds vs. Bats): Flight evolved independently in these groups through distinct anatomical adaptations.

13. Paedomorphosis: The retention of juvenile features in the adult form, often seen in certain species due to evolutionary pressures.

BONUS NOTES ON EXTINCTIONS

1. Cretaceous-Tertiary (K-T) Boundary (~65 MYA): Marks the end of the Mesozoic Era, associated with a mass extinction event that led to the demise of dinosaurs (except for birds), ammonites, hybodontid sharks, and other groups.

2. Permian-Triassic (~245 MYA): Known as the "Great Dying," the largest mass extinction event in Earth's history, which eliminated over 90% of species, including rugose corals, trilobites, blastoids, and significantly reduced diversity in brachiopods and crinoids.