6.2-6.13 APUSH Vocab

Transcontinental Railroads: Railroads that spanned across the entire continental United States, connecting the eastern and western parts of the country. The first transcontinental railroad was completed in 1869, facilitating trade, migration, and communication.

Great Plains: A vast region of flat land, primarily in the central United States, that stretches from the Rocky Mountains to the Mississippi River. It is characterized by prairie, steppe, and grassland ecosystems.

Great American Desert: A term used in the 19th century to describe the arid and sparsely populated region of the western United States, particularly the Great Plains, which was perceived as inhospitable for settlement.

100th Meridian: An imaginary line that runs north to south through the central United States (roughly along the western boundary of Kansas). It marked the division between the humid eastern part of the country and the drier western part, influencing settlement patterns and agricultural practices.

Buffalo Herds: Large groups of buffalo (bison) that roamed the Great Plains. They were vital to the Indigenous peoples of the region, providing food, clothing, and materials. Their near-extinction in the 19th century was largely caused by overhunting and the expansion of settlers.

Vaqueros: Spanish or Mexican cowhands who worked on cattle ranches in the American West. They were the predecessors of American cowboys, influencing cowboy culture and techniques.

Longhorn Cattle: A breed of cattle with distinctive long, curved horns, originally brought to the Americas by Spanish settlers. They became an important livestock breed in the western United States.

Cattle Drives: The process of driving large herds of cattle from ranches in Texas and other southern states to railheads in Kansas and other northern locations for sale and shipment. This was a key feature of cattle ranching in the late 19th century.

Barbed Wire: A type of wire with sharp barbs or points at regular intervals. Invented in the 1870s, it was widely used to fence off land, particularly on the Great Plains, and it played a major role in the settlement of the West by allowing farmers to protect their crops and livestock.

Homestead Act: A U.S. law passed in 1862 that granted 160 acres of land to any American, including freed slaves, who was willing to settle on and improve the land for at least five years. It aimed to encourage westward expansion and agricultural development.

Joseph Glidden: An American farmer who is credited with inventing the modern form of barbed wire in 1873. His invention revolutionized fencing practices in the American West.

“Dry Farming”: A farming method used in arid regions where irrigation is not feasible. It involves techniques such as planting crops that are drought-resistant and using deep plowing to conserve moisture in the soil.

John Tyler: The 10th president of the United States (1841-1845). He was known for his support of annexing Texas and his leadership during the annexation process.

Oregon Territory: A region in the Pacific Northwest that was jointly occupied by the United States and Britain until 1846. The territory was eventually divided between the U.S. and Britain at the 49th parallel, and it became part of the United States.

“Fifty-Four Forty or Fight!”: A slogan used by expansionists in the mid-19th century referring to the northern boundary of the Oregon Territory (54°40' latitude). It symbolized the U.S. demand for all of Oregon, which was in dispute with Britain. The dispute was settled with the Oregon Treaty of 1846.

James K. Polk: The 11th president of the United States (1845-1849). He is best known for his expansionist policies, including the annexation of Texas, the acquisition of Oregon, and the Mexican-American War, which led to the acquisition of large territories in the Southwest.

Cash Crops: Crops grown primarily for sale and profit rather than for personal consumption. Examples include cotton, tobacco, and wheat. Cash crops played a major role in the economy of the southern U.S. before the Civil War.

Markets: Economic places where goods and services are bought and sold. In the context of agriculture, markets refer to both local and international demand for crops, livestock, and other products.

Deflation: A decrease in the general price level of goods and services in an economy. Deflation can lead to economic contraction, as the value of money increases, but debt becomes more difficult to repay.

Middlemen: Individuals or businesses that act as intermediaries between producers and consumers, facilitating the distribution and sale of goods.

National Grange Movement: A social and political movement founded in the 1860s that sought to improve the economic and social conditions of farmers. It advocated for cooperative farming practices, rural education, and political reforms.

Cooperatives: Business organizations owned and operated by their members, who share in the profits and decision-making. Farmers used cooperatives to pool resources, buy supplies at lower costs, and market their goods more effectively.

Granger Laws: A series of state laws in the late 19th century aimed at regulating railroad rates and grain elevator fees. The laws were influenced by the National Grange Movement and were intended to protect farmers from unfair practices by railroads and other large corporations.

Munn v. Illinois: A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case in 1877 that upheld the right of states to regulate private industries, particularly in the case of grain elevators. The decision set a precedent for government regulation of businesses that serve the public interest.

Ocala Platform: A political manifesto adopted in 1890 by the National Farmers' Alliance, which called for reforms such as the direct election of U.S. senators, a graduated income tax, and the free coinage of silver to increase the money supply and combat deflation. It was a precursor to the Populist Party.

Frederick Jackson Turner: An American historian known for his "Frontier Thesis," which argued that the American frontier experience shaped the nation's character, democracy, and institutions. He delivered his famous paper "The Significance of the Frontier in American History" in 1893.

“The Significance of the Frontier in American History” (1893): A seminal essay by Frederick Jackson Turner that argued the existence of the American frontier was a key factor in shaping American society, fostering individualism, democracy, and innovation. Turner believed the frontier helped define American identity and national character.

Little Bighorn: A battle fought in 1876 in Montana between the U.S. Army, led by Lieutenant Colonel George Custer, and a coalition of Native American tribes, including the Lakota Sioux, Cheyenne, and Arapaho. The Native American forces, led by Sitting Bull and Crazy Horse, decisively defeated Custer's troops, marking one of the most famous battles in the Indian Wars.

Ghost Dance Movement: A religious movement among Native American tribes in the late 19th century, particularly among the Plains Indians. The movement, led by the prophet Wovoka, promised the return of Native American lands and the removal of white settlers through a mystical dance. The U.S. government saw it as a threat, leading to violent confrontations, including the Wounded Knee Massacre in 1890.

Assimilationists: Individuals or groups advocating for the integration of Native Americans into mainstream American society by eradicating their indigenous cultures and lifestyles. This often involved efforts to encourage Native Americans to adopt European-style farming, Christianity, and Western education.

Helen Hunt Jackson: An American author and activist who was a strong advocate for the rights of Native Americans. Her 1881 book A Century of Dishonor documented the injustices and mistreatment faced by Native Americans at the hands of the U.S. government.

Dawes Act of 1887: A U.S. law that aimed to assimilate Native Americans by dividing their communal tribal lands into individual plots for private ownership. It resulted in the loss of much Native American land and culture, as surplus lands were sold to non-Native settlers.

Indian Reorganization Act: A 1934 law aimed at reversing some of the damage caused by the Dawes Act. It sought to restore some degree of self-government and autonomy to Native American tribes by allowing them to form their own governments and manage their own lands, although it still placed significant limitations on their sovereignty.

Santa Fe Trail: A historic trade route that connected Missouri to Santa Fe, New Mexico, used primarily in the 19th century for commerce and migration. It played a significant role in the westward expansion of the United States and the development of the southwestern frontier.

Deforestation: The process of clearing forests, often for agricultural development, urbanization, or logging. Deforestation has been a major environmental issue, contributing to habitat loss, climate change, and soil erosion.

Yosemite: A national park located in California's Sierra Nevada, famous for its stunning natural landscapes, including granite cliffs, waterfalls, and giant sequoia trees. Yosemite was one of the first areas to be designated as a national park in the United States.

Forest Reserve Act of 1891: A U.S. law that gave the president the authority to set aside public lands as national forests. This act was a key piece of legislation in the establishment of the national forest system and the conservation movement.

Forest Management Act of 1897: A law that provided for the management and sustainable use of national forests. It established guidelines for timber harvesting and land management, aiming to preserve forests while allowing for their economic use.

Conservationists: Individuals or groups who advocate for the protection and management of natural resources to ensure their sustainable use. Conservationists seek to balance human needs with the protection of the environment.

Preservationists: Individuals or groups who advocate for the protection of natural areas from human use or development. Unlike conservationists, preservationists often seek to maintain areas in their natural state for future generations, without economic exploitation.

John Muir: A Scottish-American naturalist and environmentalist who is best known for his role in the founding of the Sierra Club and his advocacy for the preservation of wilderness areas, including the establishment of national parks such as Yosemite.

Sierra Club: An environmental organization founded in 1892 by John Muir and others, focused on the preservation of wilderness areas and the promotion of environmental conservation. The Sierra Club played a major role in the creation of national parks and the protection of natural landscapes in the United States

“New South”: A term used to describe the post-Reconstruction Southern economy and society, emphasizing modernization, industrialization, and diversification of the economy. It was a vision promoted by Southern leaders who wanted to move away from the old agrarian economy based on slavery and instead embrace industrial growth.

Henry Grady: A Southern newspaper editor and journalist who was a leading proponent of the "New South" idea. He advocated for industrial development, diversification of the Southern economy, and racial reconciliation in the aftermath of the Civil War.

Birmingham (steel): Birmingham, Alabama, became a center for the steel industry in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Its iron and coal resources made it a key location for steel production, playing a major role in the industrialization of the South.

Memphis (lumber): Memphis, Tennessee, became an important hub for the lumber industry in the late 19th century, primarily because of its proximity to vast forests of pine in the region. The city's economy grew significantly as a result of the lumber trade.

Richmond (tobacco): Richmond, Virginia, became a key center for the tobacco industry, particularly after the Civil War. Tobacco farming and the production of products like cigarettes and cigars helped fuel the economy in this region.

National Rail Network: The extensive network of railroads that connected various regions of the United States, facilitating the movement of goods, people, and resources. It played a key role in the industrialization and expansion of the U.S., particularly after the Civil War.

Tenant Farmers: Farmers who worked land that they did not own, usually paying rent to landowners. Tenant farming became widespread in the South after the Civil War, and many tenant farmers were poor and in debt.

Sharecroppers: A type of tenant farmer who worked land in exchange for a share of the crops, rather than paying cash rent. Sharecropping became common in the post-Reconstruction South, often trapping farmers in a cycle of debt and poverty.

George Washington Carver: An African American agricultural scientist and inventor, best known for his work with peanuts, sweet potatoes, and crop rotation. He was a prominent educator at the Tuskegee Institute and helped promote alternative crops to cotton, improving soil quality and economic prospects for Southern farmers.

Tuskegee Institute: A historically Black college founded by Booker T. Washington in 1881 in Tuskegee, Alabama. It became a leading institution for higher education, vocational training, and agricultural research for African Americans.

White Supremacists: Individuals or groups who believe in the racial superiority of white people over all other races. White supremacist ideologies were widespread in the post-Reconstruction South and played a key role in enforcing segregation and racial discrimination.

Civil Rights Cases of 1883: A group of five U.S. Supreme Court cases that were decided together, in which the Court ruled that the Civil Rights Act of 1875, which prohibited discrimination in public accommodations, was unconstitutional. This decision severely weakened the federal government's ability to protect civil rights.

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896): A landmark U.S. Supreme Court case in which the Court upheld the constitutionality of racial segregation under the doctrine of "separate but equal." This decision legalized segregation in public facilities and was a major setback for civil rights for African Americans.

Jim Crow Laws: State and local laws that enforced racial segregation in the Southern United States from the late 19th century into the mid-20th century. These laws were designed to keep African Americans and white Americans separate in public spaces, schools, transportation, and other areas of life.

Literacy Tests: Tests designed to determine a person's ability to read and write, often used in the South to prevent African Americans from voting. These tests were frequently biased and unfair, and they were part of a broader system of disenfranchisement for Black voters.

Poll Taxes: Fees that individuals were required to pay in order to vote. Poll taxes were used in the South as a means to disenfranchise African Americans, as many Black citizens were too poor to afford the tax.

Grandfather Clauses: Laws that allowed individuals to vote if their grandfathers had been eligible to vote. This provision was designed to allow white citizens to bypass literacy tests and poll taxes, while effectively disenfranchising African Americans, whose ancestors were often enslaved and could not vote.

Lynch Mobs: Groups of people who took the law into their own hands by executing extrajudicial killings, often by hanging, of African Americans and others. These acts of violence were typically driven by racial hatred and were used to intimidate Black communities and enforce white supremacy.

Economic Discrimination: The practice of treating individuals or groups unfairly in the economic sphere based on factors such as race, ethnicity, or social class. In the post-Reconstruction South, economic discrimination was widespread, particularly against African Americans, who faced exclusion from many economic opportunities.

Ida B. Wells: An African American journalist, educator, and civil rights advocate who was a leading crusader against lynching. Wells used her writings to expose the brutal practice and fight for justice and civil rights for African Americans.

International Migration Society: An organization founded in 1894 by African American leaders, including Booker T. Washington, to facilitate the emigration of African Americans to Africa, specifically to Liberia. The organization aimed to provide African Americans with opportunities for land ownership and self-governance.

Booker T. Washington: An African American educator and leader who advocated for vocational and industrial education for African Americans as a means of achieving economic independence. He founded the Tuskegee Institute and believed that Black people should focus on improving themselves through education and hard work rather than fighting for immediate political and social equality.

W.E.B. DuBois: An African American scholar, activist, and co-founder of the NAACP. DuBois advocated for full civil rights, political participation, and higher education for African Americans. He disagreed with Booker T. Washington’s emphasis on vocational education, promoting instead a "Talented Tenth" of highly educated Black leaders to push for social change.

Atlanta Compromise: An agreement articulated by Booker T. Washington in a 1895 speech in which he suggested that African Americans should accept segregation and disenfranchisement for the time being, while focusing on vocational and industrial training. Washington believed this would help Black people earn the respect of white Americans and improve their economic standing.

Economic Cooperation: The idea that individuals or groups can work together to achieve economic success. In the context of African American communities in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, this often meant working together to build businesses, schools, and institutions that supported economic self-sufficiency.

Transatlantic Cable: The transatlantic telegraph cable, completed in 1866, allowed for near-instant communication between Europe and North America, revolutionizing global communication.

Telephone: Invented by Alexander Graham Bell in 1876, the telephone transformed communication by allowing people to talk to one another over long distances.

Alexander Graham Bell: Known for his invention of the telephone, Bell's work also extended to aviation and hearing devices.

Eastman’s Kodak Camera: George Eastman revolutionized photography in 1888 by introducing the Kodak camera, which allowed ordinary people to take photographs with roll film.

Henry Bessemer: An English engineer who developed the Bessemer process in the 1850s, a method of producing steel more efficiently and cheaply, greatly impacting the industrial revolution.

Thomas Edison: A prolific inventor who contributed to the development of the electric light bulb, phonograph, and motion pictures, among many other things. His work in Menlo Park (his research lab) made him a household name.

Menlo Park: The site of Edison’s famous laboratory in New Jersey, where many of his key inventions were developed.

Electric Power: Thomas Edison and George Westinghouse both played key roles in developing electric power systems, with Edison favoring direct current (DC) and Westinghouse backing alternating current (AC), which eventually became the standard.

Electric light: The electric light bulb, perfected by Edison, changed how people lived and worked after dark, ushering in a new era of productivity and leisure.

George Westinghouse: A leading figure in the development of AC (alternating current) electrical systems. He competed with Edison in what became known as the "War of Currents."

Subways: The first modern subway system was built in London in 1863, followed by New York City's subway in 1904, revolutionizing urban transportation.

Brooklyn Bridge: Completed in 1883, the Brooklyn Bridge, designed by John A. Roebling and his son Washington Roebling, was an engineering marvel that connected Manhattan and Brooklyn over the East River.

Skyscraper: The introduction of steel-frame construction and elevators made the construction of tall buildings, or skyscrapers, possible in the late 19th century, especially in cities like Chicago and New York.

Otis Elevator: Elisha Otis invented the safety elevator in 1852, which made the development of skyscrapers feasible by providing a safe way to lift people and goods to higher floors.

R.H. Macy: R.H. Macy & Co. (often just Macy's) was a department store founded by Rowland Hussey Macy in 1858 in New York City. It revolutionized retail by offering a wide variety of goods under one roof, making shopping more convenient for consumers. Macy’s became famous for its grand scale and innovative practices, including creating the first "Thanksgiving Day Parade."

Large Department Store: The rise of large department stores, like Macy's, Marshall Field's, and Marshall & Swift in Chicago, was a hallmark of the late 19th century. These stores brought together many kinds of merchandise, including clothing, home goods, and food, which had previously been sold in smaller specialty stores. They created a new kind of shopping experience and were pioneers in customer service and product displays.

Mail-order Company: Companies like Sears, Roebuck & Co. and Montgomery Ward were pioneers in the mail-order business. They enabled rural Americans, who often lived far from cities, to access a wide variety of goods. Through catalogs, these companies helped democratize consumer goods, offering products ranging from clothes to farming equipment, and eventually furniture and appliances. Sears became one of the largest mail-order companies in the U.S.

Sears, Roebuck & Co.: Founded in 1893 by Richard Warren Sears and Alvah C. Roebuck, Sears was one of the most important and innovative companies in American retail history. Its catalog revolutionized how people shopped by offering an extensive range of goods that could be ordered and delivered to homes, making it particularly vital for rural populations.

Packaged Foods: The rise of packaged foods, such as those produced by General Mills, Post, and Kellogg's, helped shape modern eating habits. These companies capitalized on the growing demand for convenience and mass-produced food items, especially after the development of modern packaging technologies that preserved food for longer periods.

Canning: Canning was a critical innovation for preserving food in the 19th century. It allowed food to be stored for longer periods and transported over long distances without spoiling, which was especially important during times of war or when transporting perishables across vast areas. Companies like Campbell's and Heinz helped popularize canned goods, making them staples in American households.

Gustavus Swift: Gustavus Swift was a pioneer in the meatpacking industry, founding Swift & Company in 1855. He revolutionized meat distribution with the invention of refrigerated rail cars, allowing for the nationwide transport of fresh meat and helping to standardize and industrialize the meatpacking business.

Advertising: Advertising saw major growth in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, largely due to the rise of new consumer products and mass media (newspapers, magazines, radio, etc.). J. Walter Thompson and N.W. Ayer & Son were among the early advertising agencies that helped businesses create effective campaigns to promote their products to a mass audience.

Consumer Economy: The late 19th and early 20th centuries marked the rise of a consumer economy, where consumer goods became the driving force of the economy. This was due to mass production, technological advances, and the increasing availability of goods through department stores, mail-order catalogs, and advertising. The growth of disposable income, along with innovations like automobiles and home appliances, fueled consumer demand and helped create a modern, consumption-driven economy.

Nation’s first big business: The railroad industry is often considered the first big business in the U.S. because it was the first sector to scale on a national level, influencing the economy, infrastructure, and society.

American Railroad Association: This was a key organization in the railroad industry, formed to address issues related to rates, safety, and standardization. It played a role in helping to create uniform standards, especially as railroads expanded across the country.

Time zones: Time zones were introduced by railroads in the U.S. in 1883 to standardize time across regions. Before this, every town had its own local time, which created confusion and made scheduling difficult for the growing rail industry.

Consolidation: This refers to the process of merging smaller railroads into larger ones. It helped reduce competition and led to the rise of monopolies in the railroad industry.

Cornelius Vanderbilt: A key figure in the railroad industry, Vanderbilt built a railroad empire in the 19th century, particularly on the East Coast, and was known for his business acumen and ruthless tactics in consolidating railroads.

Jay Gould: Another major figure in the railroad industry, Gould was a financier who made a fortune by acquiring and manipulating railroad stocks, often using controversial tactics like “watering” stock to inflate its value.

Watering stock: This practice refers to the creation of more shares of stock than a company’s actual value, thereby inflating the stock price and allowing the company to raise more capital at the expense of shareholders.

Rebates: Rebates were discounts or refunds given by railroads to large shippers or business customers in return for their loyalty. These deals often led to unfair practices and price manipulation.

Pools: Pools were informal agreements between competing railroads to fix prices, divide markets, or limit competition. These were essentially monopolistic practices, and they were aimed at increasing profits for all parties involved.

Bankruptcy: Many railroads went bankrupt during this period, especially after overexpansion or financial manipulation. In some cases, J.P. Morgan, a powerful financier, played a role in rescuing or restructuring these railroads.

J. Pierpont Morgan: A key financier during the Gilded Age, Morgan was involved in reorganizing railroads, particularly during bankruptcies. He helped consolidate the railroad industry into a few powerful entities, essentially creating monopolies in some cases.

Interlocking directorates: This practice involves placing the same individuals on the boards of directors of multiple companies. It was commonly used by powerful industrialists like J.P. Morgan to create interconnections between firms and consolidate power, often within the same industries.

Andrew Carnegie: Carnegie was a Scottish-American industrialist who became one of the richest men in the world by building a steel empire. He is known for leading the expansion of the steel industry in the U.S. through a combination of vertical integration and innovation.

United States Steel: Founded by J.P. Morgan in 1901 by merging Carnegie Steel with other steel companies, U.S. Steel became the first billion-dollar corporation in the world. It symbolized the consolidation of industry and the rise of corporate power.

John D. Rockefeller: Rockefeller was the founder of Standard Oil and is often regarded as one of the wealthiest individuals in history. He monopolized the oil industry through aggressive business practices, including predatory pricing and controlling production, refining, and distribution.

Monopoly: A monopoly exists when one company or group controls the entire supply of a product or service, eliminating competition. Both Rockefeller's Standard Oil and Carnegie’s U.S. Steel were examples of monopolies in their respective industries.

Standard Oil: Founded by John D. Rockefeller in 1870, Standard Oil became the largest oil refining company in the world. It controlled much of the American oil industry until it was broken up by the U.S. government in 1911 for violating antitrust laws.

Trust: A trust is a legal arrangement where one company (or a group of companies) allows a third-party trustee to manage its assets or stocks. Trusts were often used by monopolists to consolidate control over industries without technically owning everything outright. Standard Oil is a famous example of a trust.

Horizontal integration: This strategy involves acquiring or merging with competitors in the same industry to reduce competition and gain market share. Rockefeller’s Standard Oil is an example of horizontal integration, as he bought out or merged with other oil refineries to control the market.

Vertical integration: In contrast to horizontal integration, vertical integration refers to controlling every aspect of the production process from raw materials to finished products. Carnegie used vertical integration in his steel industry by controlling everything from iron ore mines to steel mills to transportation, which allowed him to reduce costs and increase efficiency.

Holding company: A holding company is a company that owns other companies' stock, often to control them. Holding companies were often used to consolidate industries and avoid antitrust regulations. J.P. Morgan's creation of U.S. Steel was facilitated by using a holding company structure to combine Carnegie Steel with other companies.

Laissez-faire: This French term translates to "let do" or "let it be" and refers to the economic philosophy that government should not interfere in business affairs. In the late 19th century, laissez-faire policies were dominant in the U.S., allowing businesses to operate with minimal regulation. This contributed to the rapid growth of industries but also to exploitative practices and labor unrest.

Adam Smith: Often considered the father of modern economics, Smith wrote The Wealth of Nations (1776), where he argued that individuals acting in their own self-interest would unintentionally benefit society through the "invisible hand" of the market. His ideas helped lay the foundation for capitalism and the belief in laissez-faire economics.

Social Darwinism: A theory applying Charles Darwin's ideas of natural selection to society, Social Darwinism suggested that wealth and success were the result of "survival of the fittest" in the economic world. Proponents argued that individuals or businesses who succeeded did so because they were the most capable, while those who failed were simply "unfit." It was often used to justify inequality, exploitation, and the concentration of wealth.

Survival of the fittest: This phrase, though originally coined by Herbert Spencer (a key figure in Social Darwinism), refers to the idea that in society, as in nature, only the strongest and most adaptable individuals or companies would succeed. This idea was often used to rationalize the harsh conditions of capitalism, where the poor and weak were seen as deserving of their fate.

William Graham Sumner: An influential advocate of Social Darwinism, Sumner argued that the wealthy had earned their status through their natural abilities and hard work, while the poor were simply less capable. He believed that social assistance for the poor or efforts to reduce inequality interfered with the natural order.

Protestant work ethic: A set of values associated with Protestantism, particularly Calvinism, which emphasized hard work, frugality, and the belief that success was a sign of moral virtue. This ethic became central to the culture of industrial America, where economic success was seen as a reflection of individual virtue and moral worth.

Concentration of wealth: This refers to the growing disparity between the rich and poor in America, particularly during the Gilded Age. As industrialists like Rockefeller, Carnegie, and others amassed vast fortunes, much of the nation's wealth became concentrated in the hands of a few, while the majority of people remained in poverty or working-class conditions.

“Self-made men”: This term refers to individuals who rose from humble beginnings to achieve wealth and success through their own hard work, ingenuity, and determination. The idea of the "self-made man" was central to the American Dream and became a powerful narrative during the Gilded Age, especially in stories about entrepreneurs like Carnegie and Rockefeller.

Horatio Alger: A 19th-century author famous for writing novels that embodied the idea of the "self-made man." His stories often featured young, poor boys who achieved success and wealth through hard work, honesty, and perseverance. Though somewhat idealized, Alger's books became widely popular and reinforced the notion that anyone, regardless of background, could rise to success in America if they worked hard enough.

Iron law of wages: This economic theory, popularized by economist David Ricardo, argued that wages tend to settle at a level sufficient to cover workers' basic needs. According to the "iron law," any increase in wages would lead to higher population growth, which would eventually drive wages back down. This theory was often used by employers to justify low wages and poor working conditions.

Wage earners: These are individuals who earn their living through wages, typically in manual labor or industrial work. The rise of wage earners during the industrial revolution marked a shift from agrarian economies to urban industrial ones, where many workers faced long hours, dangerous conditions, and low pay.

Collective bargaining: A process where workers, usually represented by a union, negotiate with employers over wages, working conditions, benefits, and other terms of employment. Collective bargaining was a central tool for labor unions seeking to improve the lives of workers.

Railroad strike of 1877: Also known as the Great Railroad Strike of 1877, this was a nationwide strike by railroad workers protesting wage cuts and unsafe working conditions. It began in West Virginia and spread across the country, involving tens of thousands of workers. The strike was met with violence from both the military and local authorities, and although it was ultimately suppressed, it marked a turning point in labor unrest.

Craft unions: These unions represent workers who have a specific skill or trade, such as carpenters, blacksmiths, or machinists. Unlike industrial unions, which represent workers in a particular industry, craft unions focus on skilled labor within a particular trade. Craft unions were more prominent in the early stages of the labor movement.

National Labor Organization: The National Labor Union (NLU), formed in 1866, was the first attempt to organize workers on a national scale in the United States. It advocated for labor reforms such as an eight-hour workday, better wages, and improved working conditions. While it was short-lived, the NLU helped lay the foundation for future labor organizations.

Knights of Labor: Founded in 1869, the Knights of Labor was one of the first major labor organizations in the U.S. It was inclusive, open to all workers regardless of skill, gender, or race. It pushed for broad social reforms, including the eight-hour workday, the end of child labor, and equal pay for women. The Knights were a significant force in the late 19th century labor movement but declined after the Haymarket Bombing in 1886.

Haymarket Bombing: This 1886 event occurred during a labor rally in Chicago's Haymarket Square, where a bomb was thrown at the police, resulting in the deaths of several people. The bombing led to a backlash against labor movements and anarchists, and the Knights of Labor, which had been associated with the rally, suffered a significant decline in influence as a result.

American Federation of Labor (AFL): Founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers, the AFL was a more conservative and pragmatic union organization compared to the Knights of Labor. It focused primarily on improving wages, hours, and working conditions for skilled workers and favored "bread-and-butter" issues over broader social reforms. It became the leading labor organization in the U.S.

Samuel Gompers: Gompers was the founder and long-time president of the American Federation of Labor (AFL). Under his leadership, the AFL grew significantly, focusing on practical issues like wages, working conditions, and union recognition. He advocated for collective bargaining and believed that unions should focus on economic improvements for workers rather than broader political reforms.

Homestead Strike: In 1892, the Homestead Strike took place at a steel plant in Pennsylvania, where workers went on strike against wage cuts and poor working conditions. The strike turned violent when Pinkerton agents were brought in to break the strike, leading to several deaths. The strike ended in a defeat for the workers, weakening the influence of the union.

Pullman Strike: In 1894, the Pullman Company, which made railroad cars, cut wages while maintaining high rents for company-owned housing. Workers went on strike in Pullman, Illinois, which escalated into a nationwide railroad strike. The federal government intervened with military force, and the strike was crushed. The leader of the strike, Eugene V. Debs, was arrested and became a prominent figure in American socialism.

Eugene V. Debs: A labor leader and socialist, Debs was one of the key figures in the Pullman Strike and later ran for president as a candidate for the Socialist Party. He advocated for workers' rights and social reforms, including the nationalization of key industries. His leadership of the Pullman Strike brought him national attention, and he became a symbol of labor activism.

“Pushes”: This term refers to the factors that "push" people out of their home countries, such as war, economic hardship, political persecution, or religious discrimination. These factors often prompted people to seek better opportunities abroad, including in the United States.

“Pulls”: Conversely, "pulls" refer to the factors that attract immigrants to a particular destination. In the case of the U.S., these "pull" factors included the promise of jobs, economic opportunities, religious freedom, and the idea of the American Dream.

“Old” immigrants: This term typically refers to immigrants who came to the United States before the 1880s, primarily from Northern and Western Europe. They were often of Anglo-Saxon or Germanic descent, and many had cultural backgrounds that were seen as more similar to the existing American population.

“New” immigrants: This term refers to immigrants who came to the U.S. after the 1880s, primarily from Southern and Eastern Europe (such as Italians, Jews, Poles, and Greeks). These immigrants were often from rural backgrounds and were considered different from the "old" immigrants because of their cultural practices, languages, and religions (many were Catholic or Jewish, in contrast to the Protestantism of earlier waves of immigrants).

Chinese Exclusion Act: Passed in 1882, this was the first significant law to restrict immigration to the United States. It specifically targeted Chinese laborers, banning them from entering the country and barring them from becoming citizens. The law was driven by racial prejudice and fears that Chinese immigrants were taking jobs away from native-born Americans.

Streetcar suburbs: These were residential areas that developed in the late 19th century on the outskirts of major cities, connected to the city center by streetcar lines (the precursor to modern public transit systems). Middle and upper-class families would often live in these suburbs, enjoying the benefits of a quieter, more spacious environment, while commuting to work in the city.

Tenement apartments: These were often overcrowded, poorly built apartments in urban areas, particularly in cities like New York. Immigrants, especially those from the "new" waves of immigration, often lived in tenements due to their low cost. These apartments were typically cramped and lacked adequate ventilation, plumbing, and sanitation, which led to unhealthy and unsafe living conditions.

Dumbbell tenements: A specific type of tenement apartment that was built in the late 19th century to accommodate a growing urban population. These buildings were shaped like a dumbbell, with narrow airshafts between apartment units to provide light and ventilation. Unfortunately, the airshafts often became clogged with waste and debris, making the buildings even more hazardous.

Ethnic neighborhoods: As immigrants from different countries arrived in the U.S., they often settled in neighborhoods where they could maintain their cultural traditions, language, and social networks. These neighborhoods were sometimes called “ethnic enclaves.” Examples include Chinatown, Little Italy, and Jewish neighborhoods in cities like New York, Chicago, and Philadelphia. In these areas, immigrants could find familiar foods, religious institutions, and community support while adapting to life in a new country.

Statue of Liberty: A symbol of freedom and democracy, the Statue of Liberty was gifted to the U.S. by France in 1886. It became an iconic representation of America's welcoming attitude toward immigrants, particularly as they arrived through Ellis Island. The statue stands as a powerful symbol of hope for those seeking a better life in America.

American Protective Association: Founded in 1887, this was a nativist organization that opposed immigration, particularly from Catholic countries. It was an expression of growing anti-immigrant sentiment, which was common during the period. Members of the APA feared that immigrants, especially Catholics and Jews, would undermine American values and political institutions.

Chinese Exclusion Act: As mentioned earlier, the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 was the first major law that restricted immigration based on race and ethnicity. It specifically targeted Chinese laborers, barring them from entering the U.S. and preventing Chinese immigrants from becoming citizens. The law was a response to racial prejudice and economic competition, particularly in the West.

Ellis Island: Located in New York Harbor, Ellis Island was the busiest immigration station in the U.S. from 1892 to 1954. Immigrants arriving in America, particularly from Europe, were processed here. While Ellis Island became a symbol of immigration, the experience could be daunting, with long waits and medical and legal inspections.

Political machines: These were powerful, often corrupt organizations that controlled city governments. Political machines operated by using patronage, where politicians provided jobs, services, or favors in exchange for votes or political loyalty. They were particularly prevalent in cities with large immigrant populations, as machines would often provide support to immigrants in return for their votes.

“Boss”: The term "boss" refers to the leader of a political machine. The "boss" controlled the machine's activities, including distributing patronage jobs and directing votes. One of the most famous political bosses was Boss Tweed of Tammany Hall in New York City, who wielded immense power and was involved in various corrupt activities.

Tammany Hall: Tammany Hall was the Democratic Party political machine in New York City. It became infamous for its corrupt practices, particularly during the leadership of William “Boss” Tweed in the 1860s and 1870s. While Tammany Hall did provide important services to immigrants (such as jobs and aid), it was also notorious for exploiting them and engaging in bribery, kickbacks, and fraud.

Jane Addams: A social reformer and the founder of Hull House in Chicago, Jane Addams was a pioneer of the settlement house movement. Settlement houses were community centers established in poor urban areas to help immigrants adjust to life in America. Addams worked to improve the living conditions of immigrants, promote education, and support social justice causes, and she was a key figure in the development of the social work profession.

Settlement houses: These were institutions founded by social reformers, like Jane Addams, in urban areas to provide social services and support to immigrants and the poor. Settlement houses offered a variety of services, including childcare, education, healthcare, and job training, and they played a major role in helping immigrants adapt to life in America.

Melting pot: The idea of the "melting pot" suggests that immigrants, once in the U.S., would blend together into a new, unified American identity. This metaphor reflects the belief that people from diverse backgrounds could assimilate into American society by adopting its customs, values, and language. However, this concept has been criticized for overlooking the complexities of cultural diversity and the challenges of assimilation.

Cultural diversity: In contrast to the "melting pot" theory, cultural diversity emphasizes the coexistence of different cultural traditions and identities within a society. Immigrants did not necessarily abandon their cultural heritage, and many U.S. cities became rich in cultural diversity, with ethnic neighborhoods, celebrations, and traditions that contributed to the broader American culture.

Expanding middle class: This refers to the growth of a socioeconomic group that occupies the middle tier between the upper and lower classes. It often includes professionals, small business owners, and those in skilled labor. The expanding middle class is often associated with economic growth, increased access to education, and higher standards of living.

White-collar workers: This term refers to employees who work in professional, managerial, or administrative positions, typically in office settings. Their work is often mental or clerical rather than physical. White-collar workers often hold jobs in fields such as finance, healthcare, or technology.

Middle management: Middle management refers to employees who are positioned between the upper-level executives and lower-level employees within an organization. They manage day-to-day operations and supervise staff, but are not at the highest decision-making level of the company.

“Gospel of Wealth”: A concept promoted by industrialist Andrew Carnegie in the late 19th century. It advocated that the wealthy had a responsibility to use their resources to promote the welfare of society, typically through philanthropy. Carnegie believed that the rich should give back to society by funding cultural, educational, and charitable causes.

Philanthropy: The act of donating money, resources, or time to charitable causes in order to promote the well-being of others. Philanthropy is often associated with the wealthy who contribute to causes such as education, healthcare, and social welfare.

Working women: This refers to women who engage in paid labor outside the home. Historically, this term has been used to describe women who worked in industries or offices, often in roles that were previously dominated by men, especially as social and economic structures began to change in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Growth of suburbs: The expansion of residential areas on the outskirts of cities, typically characterized by single-family homes and lower population densities. This phenomenon gained momentum in the mid-20th century, particularly in the United States, as transportation improvements (like cars and highways) allowed people to live farther from city centers.

“City Beautiful” movement: A reform movement in the early 20th century that aimed to improve urban planning and design by incorporating aesthetics into public spaces. The goal was to create beautiful, harmonious cities with grand architecture, green spaces, and well-planned streets in order to inspire civic pride and improve the quality of life for urban residents.

Kindergarten: A form of early childhood education that typically serves children ages 5-6, focusing on social, cognitive, and physical development. The term was originally German and means "children's garden." It emphasizes play and learning in a structured setting before formal schooling begins.

Public high schools: Secondary schools that are funded and operated by government entities, typically at the local or state level. These schools are free and open to all students within a specific geographic area, providing a general education through grades 9–12.

Electives: Courses or subjects that students can choose to take in addition to their required courses. Electives allow students to explore interests outside of the standard curriculum and can include subjects like music, art, languages, or physical education.

Johns Hopkins University: A prestigious private research university located in Baltimore, Maryland, founded in 1876. It is known for its emphasis on research, particularly in fields like medicine, public health, and science, and has a world-renowned medical school.

Social sciences: A broad field of academic disciplines that study human society and social behavior. Key areas include psychology, sociology, anthropology, economics, and political science. Social sciences seek to understand the structures, processes, and behaviors of individuals and societies.

Richard T. Ely: An influential American economist and social reformer, Ely was a prominent figure in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. He was a founder of the American Economic Association and an advocate for progressive economic policies, focusing on issues like labor rights and social welfare.

W.E.B. Du Bois: A pioneering African American sociologist, historian, and civil rights activist. Du Bois was a founding member of the NAACP and advocated for the advancement of African Americans through education and political activism. He is best known for his book The Souls of Black Folk and his concept of "double consciousness."

Professions: Occupations that require specialized education, training, and skills. Professions often involve providing services to others, such as law, medicine, engineering, and teaching. Members of professions typically follow ethical codes and are often licensed or certified.

Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.: An American lawyer, jurist, and Supreme Court justice who served from 1902 to 1932. Holmes was known for his progressive views and influential legal writings, particularly on free speech and the interpretation of the U.S. Constitution. His "clear and present danger" test was a key contribution to First Amendment jurisprudence.

Clarence Darrow: A famous American lawyer and civil liberties advocate, Darrow is best known for his defense of high-profile cases, including the Scopes "Monkey" Trial in 1925, where he defended a teacher accused of teaching evolution. He was also a strong advocate for labor rights and social justice.

Mass-circulation newspapers: Newspapers with a wide distribution and large readership. These newspapers are typically aimed at the general public rather than niche audiences. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, mass-circulation newspapers played a crucial role in shaping public opinion and providing news to a broad audience.

Joseph Pulitzer: A Hungarian-American newspaper publisher best known for establishing the New York World and for creating the Pulitzer Prizes, which recognize excellence in journalism, literature, and music. Pulitzer was a key figure in the development of modern journalism and the promotion of investigative reporting.

William Randolph Hearst: An American newspaper magnate who built a large media empire in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Hearst was known for sensationalist reporting, sometimes called "yellow journalism," which emphasized scandal and sensational news. His publications were influential in shaping public opinion.

Ladies’ Home Journal: A popular American magazine for women that began in the late 19th century. It was one of the first magazines to reach a mass audience, providing a mix of advice, homemaking tips, and stories. It helped to shape the role of women in American society during its peak.

Growth of leisure time: As industrialization and technological advancements progressed, many people began to experience more free time due to shorter work hours and better wages. This increase in leisure time allowed for the growth of recreational activities and the entertainment industry in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Circuses: Traveling entertainment shows featuring acrobats, clowns, animals, and other acts. The circus became a major form of entertainment in the U.S. during the 19th century, drawing large crowds for its thrilling performances and spectacle.

“The Greatest Show on Earth”: The famous tagline for the Ringling Bros. and Barnum & Bailey Circus. The circus, which combined various performances, wild animals, and other attractions, was promoted as the most exciting show ever staged, symbolizing the height of American entertainment at the time.

Wild West Show: A traveling performance that dramatized the American frontier, featuring reenactments of cowboy life, Native American scenes, and other aspects of the "wild west." The shows were extremely popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with William "Buffalo Bill" Cody being the most famous figure associated with them.

“Buffalo Bill”: William F. Cody, an American soldier, scout, and showman, who founded the "Buffalo Bill’s Wild West Show." His show popularized the myth of the American frontier and featured reenactments of battles, cowboy stunts, and performances by Native Americans, showcasing the "wild west" as a place of adventure and heroism.

John Philip Sousa: An American composer and conductor, known as the "March King." He was famous for composing many popular military and patriotic marches, including The Stars and Stripes Forever. Sousa’s music became a defining element of American popular music in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Jazz: A genre of music that originated in African American communities in the early 20th century, particularly in New Orleans. Jazz blends elements of blues, ragtime, and European music traditions. It’s characterized by improvisation, syncopation, and rhythmic swing, and became one of the most influential genres of American music.

Jelly Roll Morton: A pioneering African American jazz musician and composer who was one of the first to write down and record jazz music. Morton is often credited with being one of the first jazz arrangers, helping to establish jazz as a structured and recognized form of music.

Scott Joplin: An African American composer and pianist, best known for his role in popularizing ragtime music. Joplin’s most famous composition, The Maple Leaf Rag, became one of the most iconic pieces of American music during the early 20th century.

Blues: A genre of music that originated in African American communities in the South, with roots in African musical traditions, spirituals, and work songs. Blues typically features a 12-bar structure and deals with themes of hardship, love, and life struggles. It heavily influenced later musical styles like jazz and rock 'n' roll.

Ragtime: A syncopated musical style that emerged in the late 19th century, particularly through the compositions of Scott Joplin and others. It became immensely popular in the early 20th century and laid the groundwork for jazz, characterized by a rhythmic “ragged” or off-beat feel.

Spectator sports: Sports that are watched by an audience, rather than participated in by the spectators. These include activities like baseball, football, and basketball, which became major forms of entertainment in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Baseball: America's pastime, baseball became a popular professional sport in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The establishment of leagues like Major League Baseball (MLB) solidified baseball as a major part of American culture, with teams and players becoming national heroes.

Football: American football began to grow in popularity in the late 19th century, with college teams first competing and professional leagues forming later. The National Football League (NFL) would eventually become one of the major spectator sports in the U.S.

Amateur sports: Sports played by individuals who do not receive monetary compensation. The rise of amateur athletics in the late 19th and early 20th centuries led to the development of competitions like the Olympics, which emphasized fair play and participation over professional success.

Bicycling: The bicycle became a popular form of transportation and recreation in the late 19th century. As people embraced cycling, it led to the development of cycling clubs, competitions, and a greater emphasis on outdoor activities.

Golf: Golf, a sport with origins in Scotland, gained significant popularity in the U.S. in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. It became associated with leisure, high society, and outdoor recreation, and is still widely played today.

Tennis: Tennis became a popular recreational and competitive sport in the late 19th century, with major tournaments like Wimbledon gaining global attention. The sport is characterized by singles or doubles play, using rackets to hit a ball over a net.

Athletic clubs: Organizations formed to promote physical fitness and sports, athletic clubs offered facilities for a variety of sports and recreational activities. They became important centers for socializing and health during the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

Polo: A team sport played on horseback, polo involves players using mallets to hit a ball into the opposing team’s goal. The sport, known for its association with the upper class, became a symbol of elite leisure and social status during this period.

Yachting: A sport involving the operation of yachts, typically for racing or recreation. Yachting was a popular pastime among the wealthy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with regattas and sailing clubs emerging as symbols of status and leisure.

Henry George: An American economist and social reformer best known for his book Progress and Poverty (1879), where he argued that land value taxation could address inequality and poverty. He proposed that taxing land and natural resources would reduce speculation and provide economic fairness.

Edward Bellamy: An American author and social activist best known for his utopian novel Looking Backward (1888), which imagined a future society where social and economic equality had been achieved through collective ownership and central planning. His ideas influenced the rise of socialism and the social reform movement.

Cardinal James Gibbons: An influential American Catholic prelate who served as the Archbishop of Baltimore. He supported labor rights and was a strong advocate for social justice, endorsing the labor movement and helping to establish the Catholic social teaching that emphasized the dignity of work and workers’ rights.

Dwight Moody: An evangelical Christian preacher and founder of the Moody Church in Chicago, known for his revivalist ministry and efforts to reach urban populations. He emphasized personal salvation and social service, founding the Moody Bible Institute, which trained missionaries and Christian workers.

Salvation Army: A Christian charitable organization founded in 1865 by William Booth in London. It focuses on social services, particularly aiding the poor and vulnerable. The Salvation Army became widely known for its work among the urban poor, its network of shelters, and its focus on rehabilitation and evangelism.

Social Gospel: A Christian intellectual movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which advocated for the application of Christian principles to social issues. Proponents of the Social Gospel, such as Walter Rauschenbusch, believed that Christians had a moral obligation to address poverty, inequality, and injustice.

Walter Rauschenbusch: A key figure in the Social Gospel movement, Rauschenbusch was a theologian and pastor who believed that Christianity should focus on improving society and addressing social problems, such as poverty and inequality. His works, including A Theology for the Social Gospel, had a significant influence on American progressive movements.

Jane Addams: A social reformer and founder of Hull House in Chicago, which was one of the first settlement houses in the U.S. Addams worked to improve the lives of immigrants and the urban poor through education, healthcare, and social services. She was also a prominent advocate for women's suffrage and peace.

Divorce: Divorce refers to the legal dissolution of a marriage. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, divorce rates began to rise as social norms surrounding marriage and gender roles evolved. Issues such as women's rights, changing attitudes toward marriage, and the growing acceptance of divorce played a role in this shift.

Family size: The number of children in a family. During the late 19th and early 20th centuries, family size began to decrease as birth control methods became more available and women gained more access to education and work outside the home. Smaller families became more common in urban areas.

Susan B. Anthony: A leading figure in the American women’s suffrage movement, Anthony played a key role in the fight for women’s right to vote. She co-founded the National Woman Suffrage Association (NAWSA) and worked tirelessly for women’s legal and civil rights throughout her life.

NAWSA (National American Woman Suffrage Association): Founded in 1890 through the merger of two earlier suffrage organizations, NAWSA was led by figures like Susan B. Anthony and Elizabeth Cady Stanton. It focused on securing women’s right to vote through state and federal legislation, leading to the eventual passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920.

WCTU (Women's Christian Temperance Union): An influential temperance and social reform organization founded in 1874. Led by women such as Francis E. Willard, the WCTU advocated for the prohibition of alcohol, as well as social reforms on issues such as women's rights, child labor, and education.

Francis E. Willard: A leader in the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU) and an advocate for women’s rights and social reform. Willard expanded the WCTU’s focus to include issues like education, labor rights, and women’s suffrage. She was instrumental in shaping the temperance movement and promoting women’s activism.

Anti-Saloon League: Founded in 1893, the Anti-Saloon League was one of the most powerful organizations advocating for the prohibition of alcohol in the United States. It played a significant role in the passage of the 18th Amendment (Prohibition) in 1919, which banned the manufacture, sale, and distribution of alcohol.

Carrie A. Nation: A radical member of the temperance movement, Nation became famous for her direct action methods, including using a hatchet to destroy saloons. She believed that alcohol was the root cause of societal problems, particularly domestic violence, and she advocated for the complete prohibition of alcohol.

Realism: A literary and artistic movement in the 19th century that sought to portray life accurately without romanticizing or idealizing it. Realists depicted everyday life, often focusing on ordinary people and their struggles, addressing social, economic, and political issues. It was a reaction against the exaggerated emotions and idealized views found in Romanticism.

Naturalism: A more extreme branch of realism, influenced by the scientific view of human nature. Naturalist writers emphasized the role of environment, heredity, and social conditions in shaping human behavior, often portraying characters as victims of their circumstances. It suggested that life and human actions were determined by forces beyond individual control.

Mark Twain (1835-1910): A famous American novelist, Twain is best known for The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. His works provide a candid, often satirical depiction of American society, tackling issues like slavery, racism, and social inequality. Twain’s wit and social commentary made him one of the most influential figures in American literature and an iconic realist author.

Stephen Crane (1871-1900): Known for his novel The Red Badge of Courage, Crane’s work often centered on war, survival, and the human condition. He is associated with naturalism due to his focus on characters in extreme situations, showing how they react to forces outside their control, such as war or poverty.

Jack London (1876-1916): Best known for adventure stories like The Call of the Wild and White Fang, London focused on naturalist themes, exploring the struggle for survival in the harsh wilderness, and the innate forces of nature that shape human behavior. His works reflect his belief in the influence of environment and heredity on individuals.

Theodore Dreiser (1871-1945): A leading figure in American naturalism, Dreiser’s novels like Sister Carrie and An American Tragedy explored the impact of social forces and personal desires on the individual, often highlighting the darker sides of life and the often grim consequences of seeking success in a materialistic society.

Impressionism: Originating in France in the late 19th century, Impressionism revolutionized art by emphasizing light, color, and atmosphere over fine details. Instead of depicting exact scenes, Impressionists captured fleeting moments and the effects of light, often painting outdoors (en plein air) to observe nature directly. Key figures include Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, and Pierre-Auguste Renoir, though American artists like Mary Cassatt were also influential in the movement.

Ashcan School: A group of American artists in the early 20th century who painted realistic depictions of urban life, particularly the gritty and less idealized aspects of New York City. They focused on scenes of everyday working-class life, including street scenes, slums, and people in their daily environments. Artists associated with the Ashcan School include Robert Henri, George Bellows, and John Sloan. The movement was important for portraying the raw, unsentimental aspects of modern urban life.

Armory Show (1913): The International Exhibition of Modern Art, commonly known as the Armory Show, was a groundbreaking art exhibition held in New York City in 1913. It introduced modern European art movements like Cubism, Fauvism, and Futurism to the American public, challenging traditional artistic norms. The show was pivotal in the development of modern art in the U.S., featuring works by artists such as Pablo Picasso, Marcel Duchamp, and Henri Matisse, alongside American artists who were embracing modern styles.

Henry Hobson Richardson (1838–1886) was an influential American architect known for his work in the Romanesque Revival style. Richardson was one of the most important figures in American architecture in the late 19th century. His designs were known for their boldness and strong use of heavy, solid forms. His most famous work is the Trinity Church in Boston (1877), which exemplifies his mastery of Romanesque Revival architecture.

Richardson’s work was marked by round arches, thick walls, small windows, and massed forms, and he often used rusticated stone in his buildings. His style had a significant influence on the architectural direction of the time, particularly in terms of strong geometric forms and structural honesty.

Romanesque architecture (c. 800–1200 AD) refers to a style of architecture that emerged in Europe during the medieval period, characterized by round arches, thick walls, heavy stone construction, and barrel vaults. The style was a direct precursor to the Gothic style.

The Romanesque Revival style, popular in the U.S. in the late 19th century, was marked by the use of these same elements, such as thick stone walls, heavy arches, and a fortress-like quality, which was seen in both public and religious buildings. Architects like Henry Hobson Richardson adapted the Romanesque style for American buildings, blending it with other influences.

Louis Sullivan (1856–1924) was an American architect, often called the “father of modern American architecture.” He is best known for his role in the development of the skyscraper and for his influence on the Chicago School of architecture. Sullivan designed several early skyscrapers in Chicago and was a key figure in the design of steel-frame construction.

Sullivan’s famous motto was “form follows function,” meaning that a building’s design should be based on its function rather than unnecessary ornamentation. He is also known for his decorative work, especially on the facades of buildings. His designs incorporated elements like ornate detailing and large windows, which helped redefine skyscraper aesthetics.

Key works include the Carson, Pirie, Scott and Company Building in Chicago (1904) and the Wainwright Building in St. Louis (1891).

Frank Lloyd Wright (1867–1959) is often regarded as one of the most influential architects of the 20th century. He is known for his innovative designs that integrated buildings with their natural surroundings, often employing open floor plans and emphasizing harmony between structure and environment.

Wright is perhaps best known for his Prairie School designs, which sought to create a uniquely American architectural style. His Fallingwater (1935), built over a waterfall, is one of his most famous works and a masterpiece of organic architecture.

Wright's Usonian houses (such as the Guggenheim Museum in New York) were designed to be affordable, functional, and in tune with the natural landscape. He sought to break away from the European architectural traditions, creating a distinct style rooted in natural materials and innovative forms.

Frederick Law Olmsted (1822–1903) was an American landscape architect, journalist, and social critic, often considered the father of American landscape architecture. Olmsted designed many of America’s most famous parks and public spaces.

His most significant work was Central Park in New York City, which he designed with Calvert Vaux in 1857. Olmsted’s approach to landscape design emphasized natural beauty, open spaces, and creating landscapes that could provide respite from urban life.

Olmsted also designed Boston’s Emerald Necklace and contributed to the design of the World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago (1893). His work promoted the idea that public parks should be accessible to all and could be a means of improving public health and social well-being.

Landscape architecture is the design and planning of outdoor spaces, blending natural elements (such as plants and terrain) with human-made structures. Landscape architects focus on creating environments that enhance human experiences and interactions with nature.

The field of landscape architecture in the U.S. developed alongside the broader city planning and urban design movements in the 19th and early 20th centuries, with figures like Olmsted leading the charge in creating public parks and green spaces.

The City Beautiful Movement (1890s-1900s) was another key movement that pushed for more aesthetically pleasing and functional urban parks and open spaces, inspired by European traditions but adapted to the American context.