Exam 2

sensation - sensory receptor detection of stimuli

transduction - conversion of stimuli to neural signals

absolute threshold - minimum detectable stimulus 50% of the time

subliminal messages - stimuli below absolute threshold

difference threshold - smallest detectable stimulus difference

perception - brain processing of sensory input

bottom-up processing - perception built from stimuli

top-down processing - perception shaped by experience and knowledge

sensory adaptation - reduced sensitivity to constant stimuli

inattentional blindness - missing obvious stimuli due to focus elsewhere

signal detection theory - detecting important stimuli amid distractions

amplitude - height from peak to trough of wave

wavelength - distance between wave peaks

frequency - number of waves per second (hertz); negative correlation with wavelength

visible spectrum - visible range (380nm-740nm) of electromagnetic spectrum

roygbiv - red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, violet; visible spectrum in order of wavelength

pitch - perception of sound frequency

decibels - unit measuring sound intensity

cornea - transparent eye covering

pupil - opening for light; inversely correlated with light intensity

iris - colored eye part controlling pupil size

lens - focuses light onto retina

fovea - retina indentation with cones

cones - bright-light photoreceptors; high detail, color vision

rods - low-light photoreceptors; peripheral vision, less detail

trichromatic theory - color perception via red, green, and blue cone combinations

opponent-process theory - color perception through opposing pairs: black-white, yellow-blue, red-green

afterimage - lingering visual perception after stimulus removal

depth perception - ability to perceive three-dimensional space

binocular cues - depth cues using both eyes

binocular disparity - difference in visual input between eyes

monocular cues - depth cues using one eye

linear perspective - depth perception via converging parallel lines

pinna - outer visible ear

tympanic membrane - eardrum

ossicles - three middle ear bones (malleus, incus, stapes); regulate balance, transmit sound

cochlea - fluid-filled structure stimulating hair cells

hair cells - auditory receptors in basilar membrane

basilar membrane - cochlear tissue containing hair cells

temporal theory - pitch perception by neuron activity level

place theory - pitch perception by basilar membrane region sensitivity

monaural cues - sound cues using one ear

binaural cues - sound cues using both ears

interaural level difference - sound louder in closer ear

interaural timing difference - sound reaches ears at different times

deafness - partial/complete hearing loss

congenital deafness - hearing loss from birth

conductive hearing loss - sound fails to reach cochlea

sensorineural hearing loss - cochlea-to-brain signal failure

cochlear implants - devices directly stimulating auditory nerve

taste buds - clusters of taste receptors with hair-like extensions

olfactory receptors - detect odor molecules; send signals to olfactory bulb

olfactory bulb - processes smell signals at frontal lobe tip

inflammatory pain - signals tissue damage

neuropathic pain - exaggerated pain signals from the brain

congenital analgesia - inability to feel pain

vestibular sense - balance and posture regulation

proprioception - body position awareness

kinesthesia - body movement awareness

figure-ground - distinguishing object from background

proximity - grouping close objects together

similarity - grouping similar objects together

continuity - preferring continuous over broken lines

closure - perceiving incomplete objects as whole

reflexes - automatic response to stimuli

instincts - innate behaviors triggered by stimuli

learning - lasting behavior/knowledge change from experience

associative learning - linking stimuli that occur together

latent learning - learning occurs but isn’t shown until needed

observational learning - learning by watching others

models - individuals demonstrating behavior

live model - in-person demonstration

verbal model - explanation of behavior

symbolic model - behavior shown in media

vicarious reinforcement - imitating rewarded behavior

vicarious punishment - avoiding punished behavior

classical conditioning - associating one stimulus with another

unconditioned stimulus - triggers reflexive response

unconditioned response - natural reaction to stimulus

neutral stimulus - no natural response

conditioned stimulus - elicits response after pairing with unconditioned stimulus

conditioned response - learned response to conditioned stimulus

higher-order conditioning - using conditioned stimulus to condition another stimulus

acquisition - learning association between neutral and unconditioned stimulus

extinction - weakening of conditioned response without unconditioned stimulus

spontaneous recovery - return of extinguished response after rest

stimulus discrimination - distinguishing similar stimuli

stimulus generalization - responding similarly to similar stimuli

operant conditioning - learning behavior-consequence associations

law of effect - satisfying consequences increase behavior; unpleasant consequences decrease it

positive reinforcement - adding stimulus to increase behavior

negative reinforcement - removing stimulus to increase behavior

positive punishment - adding stimulus to decrease behavior

negative punishment - removing stimulus to decrease behavior

shaping - reinforcing successive steps toward desired behavior

primary reinforcer - innate reinforcement value

secondary reinforcer - reinforcement via association with primary reinforcer

continuous reinforcement schedule - reinforcement every time behavior is exhibited

partial reinforcement schedule - inconsistent reinforcement

fixed interval partial reinforcement schedule - reinforcement after set time; moderate response rate with pauses

variable interval partial reinforcement schedule - reinforcement after varying time; steady response rate

fixed ratio partial reinforcement schedule - reinforcement after set responses; high response rate with pauses

variable ratio partial reinforcement schedule - reinforcement after varying responses; high, steady response rate

memory - encoding, storing, and retrieving information

encoding - processing info for storage

automatic processing - encoding without effort

effortful processing - requires attention and work

semantic encoding - encoding meaning of words

visual encoding - encoding images

acoustic encoding - encoding sounds

explicit memory - consciously recalled

episodic memory - personal experiences

semantic memory - knowledge and facts

implicit memory - unconscious memory

procedural memory - skills and tasks

priming - prior stimulus influences response

emotional conditioning - learned emotional responses

storage - creating permanent records

atkinson-shiffrin model - memory has three stages: sensory, short-term, and long-term

sensory memory - brief sensory storage

short-term memory - temporary processing of info

rehearsal - moves info to long-term memory

long-term memory - continuous storage, unlimited capacity

lashley’s engram - physical trace of memory in the brain (unsuccessfully found)

retrieval - accessing stored info

recall - retrieving without cues

recognition - identifying learned info

relearning - reacquiring forgotten info

self-reference effect - better memory for personal information

arousal theory - strong emotions enhance memory

flashbulb memory - vivid memory of significant events

amnesia - memory loss

anterograde amnesia - can’t form new memories

retrograde amnesia - can’t recall past memories

construction - forming new memories

reconstruction - recalling old memories

suggestibility - external info alters memories

misinformation effect - misleading info distorts recall

false memory syndrome - false autobiographical memories

forgetting - loss of long-term memory

transience - fading memories over time

absentmindedness - lapses from inattention

blocking - failure to retrieve stored info

misattribution - incorrect memory source

bias - personal beliefs distort memory

persistence - unwanted recall of memories

proactive interference - old info blocks new

retroactive interference - new info blocks old