APUSH UNIT 3 STUDY GUIDE

3.1: THE SEVEN YEARS’ WAR

WHO? Fought between the French and the British colonists.

WHY? The war was the result of colonial expansion in which English settlers encroached on French colonial territory, the Ohio Valley, and the French responded with building fortified outposts – this show of defense was taken as a sign for the British colonists.

NATIVES.  Immediately, the British and the French sought alliances with the Natives for aid in battle against the opposing side. Surprisingly, the Natives continuously switched whom they were loyal to, altering between the British and the French, their choice of allies determined by which of the colonists provided them with more crucial resources. However, most Native Americans in the region allied themselves with the French, due to the fact these colonists had traditionally the best of relations with Natives.

BEGINNING.  The Governor of Virginia sent a small militia led under the command of George Washington to stop the French from completing the construction of fortified outposts, thereby winning the Ohio Valley. Washington led the colonial contingent against a French outpost though lost, surrendering, and returned to Virginia – he was hailed a hero.

THE ALBANY PLAN OF UNION. Recognizing the need for coordinating colonial defense, the British government called for a congress meeting in Albany, NY (1754). Created by Benjamin Franklin and delegates from seven colonies, the Albany Plan of Union issued a system for recruiting troops and collecting taxes for their common defense. However, because each colony did not want to relinquish its right to self-taxation, it never took effect. Franklin’s frustration was published in a political cartoon of a broken snake, “Join or Die.”                               

                    → IMPORTANCE? It set an example for revolutionary congresses that would occur later.

RESULTS. After British victory, the European powers negotiated a peace treaty known as the Peace of Paris (1763). Due to this treaty, the British gained control of French Canada and Spanish Florida, thereby acquiring nearly all territory east of the Mississippi Valley. Afterwards, the French had lost a significant amount of their American colonies to the British, leaving them with two small islands that underscored the impact of mercantilism.

                     →  IMPORTANCE? It resulted in England becoming the undisputed colonial power in North America, with a dominant naval power internationally.

THE BRITISH VIEW. The British had a low opinion of the colonial military abilities. Held the American militia in contempt – deemed them poorly trained and disorderly. Noted that the colonies refused to cooperate in contributing either troops or money to the war effort. Convinced the colonists were unable and unwilling to defend the new frontiers of the expanding British Empire. 

THE COLONIAL VIEW. The colonists had a vastly different  opinion of their military;s performance. Held pride and developed confidence that they could provide their own defense against opposition to their colonial reign. The colonists held the British in contempt, unimpressed with their lack of skill in warfare amidst the terrain of eastern America.

                   → IMPORTANCE? It demonstrates the development of mutual tension and dislike between the colonies and the monarch, which will later contribute to the want for separation in the form of independence. 

3.2: TAXATION WITHOUT REPRESENTATION

WHY? Financing the war caused a debt for the British government. King George III and Prime Minister believed the colonists should help pay the debts. Colonists believed they had already fulfilled obligations.

THE SUGAR ACT (1764). The first new regulation imposed on the colonists. The purpose of the Sugar Act was to raise money for the crown while also aimed at providing stricter enforcements of the Navigation Acts to end smuggling trade in sugar and molasses. This caused a lowered duty on molasses coming into the colonies from the West Indies.

THE STAMP ACT (1765). This regulation was aimed at raising funds for the British military in the colonies. This required revenue stamps to be placed on most printed paper in the colonies – a broad based tax covering all legal documents and licenses. Affected everyone, especially lawyers. 

                  → REACTION? Awakened the colonists to the likelihood of more taxes to follow from British authority. Highlighted that the colonists’ method of self-taxation was being unjustly manipulated by the Parliament. 

                    Colonies argued for representation in Parliament or greater degree of self-governance – the British denied the notion, believing they were already represented. Colonists knew they only had a small amount of representation that wouldn't protect their rights – they wanted the right to determine their own taxes.

                  → NOTABLE OPPOSITION? Patrick Henry drafted the Virginia Stamp Act Resolves, claiming colonists had the right to self-governance. In Boston, mobs rioted, burning customs officers, a house, and nearly the governor’s manor. The Sons and Daughters of Liberty formed, known as a protest group. 

                    Opposition was effective, the Stamp Act was repealed but the Declaratory Act was asserted – the British government had a right to tax anywhere in the colonies.

THE TOWNSHEND ACTS. Enacted new duties (taxes) to be collected on colonial imports of tea, paper, and glass. This also allowed the license to search private homes for suspected smuggled goods. Additionally, the Townshend Acts suspended New York’s right to assemble due to defiance of the Quartering Act.

                  → NOTABLE OPPOSITION? Stronger protests than before! The Massachusetts Assembly sent a letter to other assemblies to ask for collective protest – British increased public outrage by silencing assemblies from speaking of the letter and governors dissolved legislatures that discussed the letter. Colonists organized rallies and boycotts – boycotts were successful because they affected merchants, who joined the protests. Colonial women sought to replace British imports with New England products. 

                  Opposition was effective, The Townshend Acts were repealed two years later.

THE QUARTERING ACT (1765). This regulation enforced that colonists must provide food and living quarters for British soldiers stationed in the colonies. These soldiers were originally sent to prevent further conflicts between Natives and the colonists, but caused heightened tensions between the colonists and the British due to lack of trust.

                   → NOTABLE OPPOSITION? Bostonians resented the British troops stationed to protect customs officers from being attacked by Sons of Liberty. On March 5th, 1770, a mob of Boston civilians attacked a group of soldiers with rock-filled snowballs, an event known as the Boston Massacre. This prompted the soldiers to fire into the crowd, killing five people, including an African-American sailor and dockworker, Crispus Attucks. The accused soldiers were represented in court by John Adams and were acquitted – this led to the established tradition of a fair trial (‘innocent until proven guilty’).

                   → IMPORTANCE? Colonial newspapers began discussing changing the relationship between the mother country and the colonies. Very few radicals were in favor of independence. When the Townshend Acts were enacted, many writers such as Mercy Otis Warren and John Dickinson called for revolution and the unification of colonists against the Parliament. 

RESULTS. Boston Tea Party results with the enactment of the Coercive/Intolerable Acts (1774), the closing of the Boston harbor and tightening of control over Massachusetts’ government. Furthermore, the Quebec Act (1774) was imposed, granting more liberties to Catholics and extended boundaries of Quebec territory – caused further unhappiness among colonists.

3.3: THE CONGRESS

THE FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS. In response to the Intolerable Acts, all colonies except for Georgia sent delegates to a convention in Philadelphia, convening in late 1774. The purpose of this meeting was to enumerate American grievances and create a solution to address them. It was also a moment to form a collective colonial position on how to address the faltering relationship between the British government and the colonies. This meeting was prompted following the enforcement of the Intolerable Acts, one of many acts which the delegates viewed as threats issued by Britain to their liberties. 

ACTIONS OF THE CONGRESS. Most Americans did not want independence. Instead, the colonists enacted the Declaration and Rights and Grievances, requesting the repeal of certain Parliament laws to restore colonial rights. Additionally, they endorsed the Suffolk Resolves, economic sanctions that called for the immediate repeal of the Intolerable Acts and the boycott of British goods until grievances were addressed. 

WINTER 1774 & SPRING 1775. British-sanctioned assemblies were replaced in many colonies. The colonists led acts of insubordination (disrupted court sessions, gathered weapons, organized militias). 

THE BATTLE OF CONCORD. The British underestimated the Pre-Revolutionary Movement. Government officials decided to arrest leaders of the insurrection and confiscate weapons as a means to avoid violence. Troops that were dispatched to confiscate weapons in Concord, Massachusetts, confronted a small colonial militia in Lexington on their journey – one fire was shot, leading the British to begin firing. In Concord, the British faced off against a larger militia which inflicted substantial damage and caused many casualties, causing the British to retreat. 

              → IMPORTANCE? Widely regarded as “The Shot Heard ‘Round the World,” in reference to being the catalyst event that sparked armed resistance to the British government and physically began the revolution.

3.4: THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR ERA

THE SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS After Massachusetts was declared to be in open rebellion and the royal government issued additional troops to eliminate the supposed insurrection, a second convention of delegates convened in Philadelphia (May, 1775). There was a clear division, with a group of New England colonists voting for a declaration of independence, meanwhile a group of middle colonists voting for a peace negotiation with Britain to resolve the conflict. 

RESULTS. The congress enacted a Declaration of the Causes and Necessities for Taking Up Arms, calling for colonies to provide troops. George Washington was appointed Commander-in-Chief of a colonial army and Benedict Arnold was instructed to raid Quebec as a diversion for British troops. An American navy and marine corps was organized and officiated to attack British shipping. 

        → NOTABLE OPPOSITION? For those that voted for negotiation, the colonists created the Olive Branch Petition as a peace effort to prevent conflict – this was denied by King George, who enacted the Prohibitory Act, declaring the colonies in open rebellion.

THOMAS PAINE’S COMMON SENSE. The argument of a radical idea, Common Sense used coherent and forceful language to advocate the colonies becoming independent states and severing all ties, economical and political, with the British monarchy. Paine asserted that it was irrational and against common sense for a small and distant island to rule over large, faraway land. Additionally, that it was illogical to pledge fealty to a king whose royal government is corrupt and whose laws violate the rights of the people.

         → IMPORTANCE? This proved significant as it was the leading form of propaganda for those in favor of independence and served to gain support for the patriot cause.

THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE. In June of 1776, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution with a declaration that the colonies were independent. Thomas Jefferson, along with four other delegates, drafted a statement to support Lee’s resolution. This declaration included specific grievances against King George III and his royal government, expressing the basic human principles that served as justification and foundation of the revolution (asserts the famous phrase: life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness). The Declaration of Independence was adopted on July 4th of 1776.

THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR. The 13 colonies maintained a population of 2.6 million people, with approximately 40% of the population actively participating in the struggle for American independence becoming known as the Patriots. Meanwhile, about 20-30% of the population sided with the British, becoming known as the Loyalists. The other 30-40% of the population remained neutral and uninvolved. 

PATRIOTS. General Washington never had more than 2,000 troops at a time under his command; the army was normally short of supplies, poorly equipped and never paid. Eventually, Washington allowed for African-Americans to join the Patriot army, with 5,000 of the enslaved population fighting as Patriots for emancipation as promised by the American government, an offer also made by Britain.

LOYALISTS. Most Loyalists tended to be wealthier and more conservative; they often included government officials and Anglican clergy who remained loyal to the king.

RESULTS. There were various American losses and hardships, such as in New York and Philadelphia, however the Battle of Saratoga in 1777 proved to be a turning point, with the Patriots earning an alliance with the French. The war continued with significant engagements until the Siege of Yorktown in 1781, with General Washington forcing the surrender of a large British army commanded by British General Cornwallis, ending the major combat. 

THE TREATY OF PARIS. The Treaty of Paris resulted and was signed in 1783, officiating American independence, providing specific territorial laws and rights for the American people, concluding the war. As stated in the Treaty of Paris: (1) Britain would recognize the existence of the United States as an independent nation. (2) The Mississippi River would be the western boundary of the nation. (3) Americans would have fishing rights off the coast of Canada. (4) Americans would pay owed debts to Britain and honor Loyalist claims for property confiscated during war.

3.5: THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION

THE ARTICLES OF CONFEDERATION. Sent to the colonies for ratification in 1777 by the Continental Congress and were ratified in March 1781. The Articles established a central government described as a unicameral legislature (just one body of government). However, there were several limitations to the Articles that were later addressed and underwent severe alterations when writing the Constitution. 

LIMITATIONS TO THE ARTICLES. The federal government had no power to mobilize troops, no ability to enforce state and individual taxation or military drafts, nor to regulate trade and commerce (neither between states or internationally), and had no executive or judicial branch which made enforcing laws and resolving disputes greatly difficult. Most importantly, in order to pass a law, 9 out of the 13 states had to agree and in order for there to be alterations to the Articles, unanimous approval was required, therefore it was nearly impossible.

3.6: A NEW CONSTITUTION

CONSTITUTION CONVENTION. Congress consented to send 55 delegates for the purpose of revising the Articles of Confederation. Of the 55 delegates: all were white men who were wealthy property owners, a majority of whom owned enslaved people, and came from different ideological backgrounds. Some wanted to simply revise the Articles while strong nationalists, such as Alexander Hamilton and James Madison, wanted to draft an entirely new document. Madison and Hamilton wanted a constitution centered around checks and balances so the power of each branch could be limited by the other. 

REPRESENTATION.  A main issue addressed was representation and whether size of state should determine the number of representatives granted (larger states having more, smaller states having less.) Madison’s proposal, the Virginia Plan, favored large states; it was countered by the New Jersey Plan, which favored small states. Ultimately, the Connecticut Plan was negotiated, providing a two-house congress. States would have equal representation, but in the House of Representatives, each state would be represented by population size. 

SLAVERY. To the issue of slavery, the Three-Fifths Compromise occurred, where an enslaved person would be treated as three-fifths of a free-born person, for the purpose of state taxation and representation. The slave trade would be granted for another 20 years, until 1808 – after that, congress could forbid it. 

TRADE. In regards to general trade, the Commercial Compromise was agreed upon, where Congress would regulate interstate and foreign commerce, including placing taxes on foreign imports, but it prohibited placing taxes on exports. 

PRESIDENCY. As for the presidency, the delegates agreed upon assigning a number of electors equal to the number of representatives – this is known as the electoral college system, created to ensure democracy does not lead to mob rule. They voted on granting the president considerable power, including the power to veto acts of Congress.

FEDERALIST AND ANTI-FEDERALISTS. The topic of ratifying the constitution created division in the nation, forming two political parties. Supporters of the constitution and its federal government became known as Federalists. Opponents of the constitution and its federalicy, became known as the Anti-Federalists. 

FEDERALIST PAPERS. Key federalists were James Madison, John Jay, and Alexander Hamiliton who wrote highly persuasive essays for the New York newspaper. 85 essays, known as the Federalists papers, provided cogent reasons for the ratification of the Constitution and acted as propaganda in the Federalist campaign. 

RESULTS. The Federalists won the first three states and, after addressing the Anti-Federalists greatest objection by promising to add a bill of rights to the Constitution, they won the other six required votes, thereby winning the ratification of the constitution (9 out of 13 required votes).

3.7: WASHINGTON’S PRESIDENCY

PRESIDENCY. Washington exercised his authority with care and restraint, utilizing his veto power when he was convinced a congress bill was unconstitutional. He properly assumed his responsibilities and formed a government with intellectual minds. He was the first to form a cabinet, composed of leading figures in executive departments – they are the president’s chief group of advisors.

CABINET SELECTIONS. Thomas Jefferson as secretary of state, Alexander Hamiton as secretary of treasury (money). Both men disagreed on the proper relationship between the federal and state government. Hamilton favored strong central government and weak state governments. Jefferson favored weak federal governments and strong state governments, fearing monarchy and wanting main powers in defense and international commerce (trade). 

NATIONAL BANK DEBATE / HAMILTON'S PROPOSAL. Hamilton proposed a National Bank to regulate and strengthen the economy, earning the support of both Congress houses. However, Washington was unconvinced and was uncertain rather the idea was constitutional, prompting a formal debate on the matter. Those who were strict constructionists, such as Jefferson and Madison, stated it was unnecessary and beyond the federal government’s power. Meanwhile, broad constructionists, such as Hamilton himself, argued the bank represented federal power and was not explicitly forbidden in  the constitution. 

             → RESULTS? Washington agreed with Hamilton and signed the bill.

FRENCH REVOLUTION AND WASHINGTON ADMIN. The French revolution sparked another debate between Hamiton and Jefferson. Hamilton held aristocratic ideology and disliked revolutionaries, while Jefferson held republican ideology and supported the idea of revolution. This became a pressing issue when France and Great Britain once again became hostile with one another.

U.S NEUTRALITY. Since the British were a prime trading partner, they urged the U.S towards neutrality in the French-English conflict. Jefferson, despite his previous support, conceded to the idea of neutrality and believed it to be the correct course of action although he did not like it. Washington issued the Neutrality Proclamation, wherein he declared the U.S' intention to remain “friendly and impartial.” Jefferson resigned from the cabinet due to this.

3.8: ORIGINS OF THE TWO PARTY SYSTEM

HAMILTON VS. JEFFERSON. In the 1790’s, the Federalist Era because of prominent federalist policies, political parties began to form around Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson. The Federalist Party was led by Hamilton and supported his financial program. Opposingly, the Democratic-Republican Party was led by Jefferson and aimed to elect candidates in states to oppose Hamilton’s program.

          → IMPORTANCE? U.S Neutrality divided Americans and solidified the differing parties. Many followed Jefferson in challenging Washington’s decision.

WHISKEY REBELLION. Hamilton implemented a tax on whiskey to raise revenue, causing farmers in Western Pennsylvania to resist the imposition of this tax, and began the Whiskey Rebellion. In response, Washington dispatched the militia to end the insurrection of the rebels, demonstrating a new enforcement of governmental response and power. 

NATIVE CONCERNS. Meanwhile, settlers steadily encroached into the Ohio Valley and beyond. To stop the encroachment, a number of Native tribes (Shawnee, Delaware, Iroquois etc.) formed the Western Confederacy, winning several battles over the local militia. Americans on the frontier speculated the British were supplying the natives to attack the newfound nation.  In 1794, General Anthony Wayne led the U.S army, defeating the Confederacy tribes at the Battle of Fallen Timbers in northwestern Ohio. In 1795, the chiefs of the tribes accepted the Treaty of Greenville, where they surrendered all claims to the Ohio Territory and allowed settlement.

JAY’S TREATY. Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to Great Britain, ordering them to end their offensive practice in search and seizing American ships and urging British sailors to evacuate posts on the US western frontier. Negotiated by Jay, he returned with a treaty in which the British agreed to evacuate posts on the US western frontier – the treaty said nothing about their search and seizure violations. Congress attempted to withhold funding to enforce the treaty while Washington refused to submit documents. 

          → IMPORTANCE? Considered a low point in Washtington’s administration.

PINCKNEY'S TREATY. Negotiated by Thomas Pinckney with Spain, it addressed the use of the Mississippi River, duty-free access to markets (did not need to pay to transfer cargo in New Orleans), and the removal of Spanish forts on American territory. Additionally, Spain offered its services in protecting the western front against Native American attacks. This treaty was ratified by the U.S Senate in 1796.

           → IMPORTANCE? Considered a high point in Washington’s administration.

WASHINGTON’S FAREWELL. At the end of Washington’s presidency, he issued a farewell statement in which he offered guidance in the form of principles for the nation. He urged the maintenance of US Neutrality, the avoidance of foreign interference, and warned against permanent alliances with foreign countries – he promoted having friendly alliances, but never strong or permanent. US Neutrality lasted until the beginning / middle of the 20th century, ending with the US’ involvement in the World Wars.

3.9: REPUBLICAN MOTHERHOOD

GENERAL INFO. During the 1790’s, the role of women in courtship, marriage, and motherhood were being reevaluated in light of the new republic and its new values. Though women were excluded from political settings, they held  significant civil roles and responsibilities. It was expected of women to guide and produce moral and law-abiding male citizens.

PRIVATE VIRTUE. Emerged as an important quality for women. They were given the task of inspiring men to be righteous citizens through love and motherhood. Furthermore, they were only to romance suitors with high morals, incentivizing men to be more ethical.

MOTHERHOOD. Advocates for women’s education argued educated women would be better mothers, in turn producing better citizens. Although the obligations of women had shifted slightly, traditional gender roles were largely unchanged – still, education was reserved only for men.

            → IMPORTANCE? The ideology of Republican Motherhood began in the early 1800’s. Mothers were expected to raise educated children who would positively contribute to the new nation.

3.10: ADAMS’ PRESIDENCY

GENERAL INFO. The Electoral College selected John Adams, a Federalist, as George Washington’s successor. Under the political rules of the time period, the second-place candidate became the new Vice President – ranking second, Democratic-Republican Thomas Jefferson became Adams’ Vice President.

BEGINNING OF TERM. Due to the foundational peace established in Washington’s Era, Adams’ presidency was “anticlimactic” and organized. Adams could be described as argumentative and elitist, marking him as unlikeable. He was an uninvolved administrator, allowing Hamilton to take charge, which caused resentment in Vice President Jefferson, who was Hamilton’s rival. 

             → IMPORTANCE? The animosity between Jefferson and Hamilton, added with the growing hatred between Democratic-Republicans and Federalists, enforced a divided setting during Adams’ term.

XYZ AFFAIR. After signing the Jay Treaty, French privateers and warships began searching and seizing American ships. In 1797, Adams sent a delegation to Paris, where French officials demanded bribes before negotiating – the U.S diplomats refused. The written report of the event was published in the American papers, with the names of the French officials being omitted – they were referred to only as X,Y, and Z. Hearing of the event, the formerly pro-France public became vehemently against France and called for a declaration of war. 

             → IMPORTANCE? Adams was aware of how small the American navy and military war was, therefore he was against war (despite Hamilton’s persistence) and instead negotiated with France. Still, minor naval battles could not be avoided, known as the Quasi-War in 1798. This avoidance of all-out war with France was considered a high point in Adams’ presidency.

ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS. Adams passed and enforced the Alien and Sedition Acts in 1798. These acts declared that the government had complete power to forcibly expel foreigners and jail journalists for “scandalous or criticizing writing.” The purpose of these acts were purely political, aiming to hinder immigrant support for the Democratic- Republicans, specifically French Immigrants, as the United States tittered on the brink of war with France.

          → NOTABLE OPPOSITION? Vice President Jefferson was the leading figure of opposition against the acts. With James Madison, he drafted the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions anonymously. These resolutions argued that the states had the right to judge whether or not federal laws were constitutional. Subsequently, it went on to exercise this claimed authority and declared the Alien and Sedition Acts void, nullifying it.

3.11: THE ELECTION OF 1800

SHIFT IN POLITICAL POWER. The Federalists lost popularity because of the Alien and Sedition Acts and the imposed taxes to pay for the Quasi-War against France. The election of 1800 swept the power from Federalists, with Thomas Jefferson and Aaron Burr tied in the electoral votes, a rare event that has never happened since. 

        → IMPORTANCE? Due to the rarity, an election in the House of Representatives was called – it was mostly Federalist and it took days before the decision was made, with Jefferson getting the majority and winning. Democratic-Republican lawmakers elected took control of both the House and Senate after a new Congress met in March 1801.

A PEACEFUL REVOLUTION. The passing of power between political parties was one without animosity and violence – a rare event. The Federalists accepted their defeat and relinquished their control over the federal government to Jefferson’s party, the Democratic-Republicans. This shift to Democratic-Republican control is known as the Revolution of 1800.