Reconstruction Review Flashcards (Ch. 1-6)
Aftermath and Core Questions
End of the Civil War context: Lee surrenders on April 9, 1865; Lincoln assassinated five days later at Ford's Theatre (April 14, 1865).
Two central reconstruction problems identified:
How to reintegrate the South into the Union.
What would be the status and rights of the newly freed Black population in society (citizenship, civil rights, and political rights).
Initial reconstruction mechanism proposed by Lincoln: loyalty oath by 10% of voters, draft a new state constitution, and apply for readmission to the Union.
Louisiana is given as an example of the 10% plan being used.
Lincoln's 10% Plan
Core idea: readmit states that formed new constitutions after swearing loyalty to the United States by a small threshold (10%).
The plan aimed for a relatively lenient reintegration approach.
Debate: many in Congress favored harsher terms and more rigorous reorganization of southern states.
Radical Republicans vs. Lincoln’s Plan
A faction within the Republican Party—often labeled as Radical Republicans—opposed Lincoln’s lenient 10% plan and sought a more forceful approach.
They argued Reconstruction should be more forceful and micromanaged, with the war having meaningful social and political consequences beyond mere victory.
They believed freed slaves' citizenship and civil rights should be guaranteed, and saw the war as a revolutionary opportunity to redefine American democracy.
Notable radicals included Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner.
Despite their influence, Radical Republicans constituted a minority within the Republican Party.
Wade-Davis Bill (July 1864)
The congressional alternative to Lincoln’s plan: a far more stringent approach.
Key provisions (as described in the transcript):
Former Confederate states would be governed under martial law with a military governor appointed by Congress.
Readmission to the Union required a much higher level of commitment (greater than Lincoln’s 10% threshold).
This bill reflected the belief that Lincoln’s plan was too weak and too lenient.
Andrew Johnson: Presidential Reconstruction
Johnson became president after Lincoln’s assassination; he was the only Southern senator to remain in Congress during the war and is described as an “accidental president.”
Johnson’s view mirrored Lincoln’s in some respects but differed in key aspects:
He argued the South never truly seceded; therefore, the Union had not been torn apart and reconstruction might be unnecessary.
He believed the country was indivisible and thus punitive reconstruction was not required.
His approach emphasized pardons and restoration of properties and political rights with limited restrictions.
Johnson attempted to maintain Lincoln’s approach while granting pardons broadly, restoring property to former Confederates, and allowing them to regain political power quickly.
Presidential Reconstruction outcomes:
Former Confederates could be pardoned and regain property; oath-takers could elect delegates to state conventions.
States would draft new constitutions, ratify the 13th Amendment, and repudiate Confederate debts.
Excluded from voting were certain Confederate officers, but they could be pardoned.
Johnson’s approach relied on a relatively quick, lenient reintegration that kept the previous power structure largely intact.
Military governance under Johnson: Johnson named generals to oversee the five military districts and could replace them with others more sympathetic to his policies.
The Black Codes and the Freedmen
The 13th Amendment (abolishing slavery) established basic freedom, but Black Codes in the South severely restricted freedmen’s rights.
Restrictions included limits on interracial marriage, jury service for Blacks, testifying against whites, etc.
Economic controls: many codes limited mobility and forced labor through vagrancy laws (e.g., South Carolina’s vagrant license), where a Black person without visible means of support could be arrested, fined, and then compelled to work to pay the fine.
The Black Codes effectively bound freed people to labor and restricted basic human and civil rights.
Congress and the growing concern of Republicans about a potential new rebellion prompted legislative action.
Forfeited Rights Theory and Congressional Authority
The Joint Committee on Reconstruction operated under the forfeited rights theory: Southern states, having seceded and warred, had forfeited certain civil and political rights.
This theory provided Congress with the jurisdiction and authority to determine when and how rights would be restored.
This stance marked a shift of Reconstruction authority from the President to Congress and intensified clashes between Johnson and Congress.
Civil Rights Act of 1866 and the Rise of Congressional Reconstruction
With wartime conditions ending, the Freedmen’s Bureau’s relevance waned and Congress moved to more proactive measures.
March 1866: Congress passed the Civil Rights Act, aligning with Radical Republicans’ vision that the war should yield substantial civil rights gains for Black Americans.
Johnson vetoed many of these measures, effectively obstructing presidential power.
This period marks the transition to Congressional (Radical) Reconstruction, where Congress took the lead in shaping policy.
The Radical Republican Agenda intensifies
Radical Republicans sought stronger guarantees for Black civil rights and a more transformative reconstruction policy.
In response to Black Codes and the potential for Southern reversal, Congress acted to block ex-Confederates from holding power.
The push toward constitutional guarantees for civil rights becomes a central focus of Congressional Reconstruction.
The Fourteenth Amendment and Reconstruction Amendments
To provide a constitutional basis for Civil Rights Act protections, Congress pushed for a constitutional amendment.
The Fourteenth Amendment (proposed and adopted during Reconstruction) established:
All persons born or naturalized in the United States are citizens.
No state can deprive a citizen of rights without due process of law.
Equal protection of the laws for all citizens.
The Reconstruction amendments were often summarized as the Thirteenth, Fourteenth, and Fifteenth Amendments.
Thirteenth Amendment: Abolished slavery and involuntary servitude (except as punishment for crime).
Fourteenth Amendment: Citizenship and equal protection due process.
Fifteenth Amendment: Prohibited denying the right to vote based on race, color, or previous condition of servitude.
Enforcement matters: Amendments are powerful in theory but rely on enforcement to be effective; without enforcement, they risk remaining words rather than reality.
The Reconstruction Act of 1867 and Military Rule
The Reconstruction Act of 1867 invalidated the state governments created under Lincoln and Johnson.
It divided the former Confederate states into five military districts governed by Union generals; all 11 Confederate states were reorganized under this framework.
Example: Florida placed in the Third Military District; Alabama and Georgia in adjoining districts.
The act required presidential naming and oversight of district commanders, and it shifted the power balance toward Congress and military governance.
In practice, the act did not confiscate property or drastically redistribute land; land ownership largely remained with prewar holders, and large landowners retained property.
The act precipitated a conflict between Congress and Johnson about who would control Reconstruction policy and who could appoint/replace district commanders.
South’s Political and Economic Realignment under Congressional Reconstruction
Despite political upheaval, property rights and ownership patterns did not dramatically redistribute land.
Economic consequences included consolidation of land ownership among fewer people; many small farmers lost land due to bank foreclosures and war disruption.
The South’s social structure began to shift toward greater southern elite control in property ownership, contrasting with the hopes of some for more equal land distribution.
The era saw increased presence of Northern “carpetbaggers” and Southern “scalawags” in political and economic life, with varying motives; carpetbaggers were often described as outsiders who came to the South with carpetbags to take advantage of the postwar chaos, though this depiction oversimplifies the broader political dynamics.
Impeachment and Aftermath: Johnson’s Presidency Fades
Congress pursued its reconstruction agenda with a growing radical intensity, leading to tensions with President Johnson.
Johnson faced impeachment proceedings in the Senate; the vote to convict fell just short of a two-thirds majority.
The Senate vote: 35 guilty, 19 not guilty; the two-thirds threshold was not reached. The required threshold was rac{2}{3} imes ext{(total Senate votes)} = ext{36 votes (assuming 54 total)}, so 35 guilty fell one short of conviction.
Johnson was not removed from office; he completed his term and chose not to run for reelection, returning to private life in Tennessee. He later served in the Senate for a period, illustrating the political limits of his influence.
Readmission, Voting Rights, and the Endgame of Reconstruction
By 1868–1870, several states were readmitted under Congress’s terms, with the Fifteenth Amendment guaranteeing Black male suffrage.
By June 1868, seven states had been readmitted; Georgia was readmitted, expelled, and then readmitted again; by 1870, all former Confederate states had been readmitted following the passage of the Fifteenth Amendment.
The Reconstruction Amendments (13th, 14th, 15th) collectively aimed to guarantee basic rights and voting rights, but their effectiveness depended on enforcement.
The era faced a significant challenge: without robust enforcement, amendments could be ignored or undermined by local laws and practices.
End of Reconstruction and Emergence of Jim Crow
Despite formal readmission, many Southern states began to implement systems of segregation and disenfranchisement that would persist for decades.
The Jim Crow era emerged as the South legislated policies that limited Black political, social, and economic life, often circumventing constitutional guarantees.
Education and state institutions evolved, including the creation of education departments as part of some postwar reforms; Northern “carpetbaggers” and Southern collaborators shaped some of these developments, though the long-term effect was uneven and contested.
Key Figures, Terms, and Milestones to Remember
Lincoln and Johnson: Two different Reconstruction approaches—lenient vs. presidentially oriented vs. Congressional control.
Radical Republicans: Thaddeus Stevens and Charles Sumner (persistent advocates for strong federal enforcement and civil rights).
Wade-Davis Bill (1864): Congressional alternative with martial law and stricter readmission criteria.
Civil Rights Act (1866) and the Fourteenth Amendment: Federal protection of civil rights and citizenship.
Reconstruction Act of 1867: Military districts and substantial federal supervision of former Confederate states.
Thirteenth, Fourteenth, Fifteenth Amendments: The core Reconstruction amendments.
Ku Klux Klan (KKK): Emerged as a reaction to Black voting and Reconstruction policies.
Grant Administration and the 1876 Election: The end of Reconstruction era is linked to the disputed 1876 election and the ensuing withdrawal of federal troops from the South.
Quick Recap: Why Reconstruction Matters
Reconstruction sought to redefine American citizenship, rights, and political inclusion after slavery.
It grappled with competing visions of how to restore the Union, how to ensure rights for freed people, and how to rebuild a war-torn economy.
The period established constitutional guarantees that would shape federal-state relations for generations, even as enforcement and political will varied and ultimately faced significant resistance in the South.
Connections to Foundational Principles and Real-World Relevance
Federalism and the balance of powers: President vs. Congress in Reconstruction policy; impeachment as a constitutional check.
Civil rights and citizenship: The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments lay the groundwork for future civil rights movements and ongoing debates about equal protection and suffrage.
Economic transformation and power: Postwar land ownership patterns and the persistence of wealth disparities reflect enduring tensions between liberty and economic power.
Ethical and political implications: Debates over punishment vs. reconciliation, the rights of newly freed people, and the responsibilities of the state in protecting those rights.
Notable Dates to Anchor the Timeline
1865-04-09: Lee surrenders; 1865-04-14/15: Lincoln assassinated.
1864-07: Wade-Davis Bill proposed.
1866-03: Civil Rights Act enacted; 1866-04: Fourteenth Amendment foundational discussions.
1867: Reconstruction Act establishing five military districts.
1868: Seven states admitted; Georgia’s admission and re-admission sequence.
1869-1870: Final adoption and enforcement of the Reconstruction Amendments (13th, 14th, 15th).
1876: End of Reconstruction following the contested election and political realignments.
Formulae and Specific Calculations (examples from the impeachment context)
Impeachment threshold in the Senate: two-thirds required, i.e.,
If the total Senate votes are 54, then the required votes for conviction are rac{2}{3} imes 54 = 36.
In the Johnson impeachment, the tally was 35 guilty and 19 not guilty, one vote short of the needed 36, so he was not convicted.