Untitled Flashcards Set

Peers and Relationships 

• From about 2-12 yeaars old.. 

-Children spend more time with peers and less time with adults/family 

• How important are peer relationships 

• -Social support 

• -Self-disclosure 

• -Sociability  

-Social Skills 

-Preparation for romantic relationships 

•   Deviancy Training 

• Benefits/risks associated with peer groups 

• Benefits 

-Can mitigate the negative effects of parenting  

-High achieving peers; low parental involvement 

• Risks 

-Can undermine the positive effects of parenting  

-Low achieving peers; high parental involvement 

Importance of Peers: Social Support 

• Remember Harlow’s Monkeys? 

• Mother-only monkeys 

-Denied contact with “peers” 

-Failed to develop normal patterns of social behavior 

-Highly aggressive and antisocial  

• Peer-only monkeys 

-Aggressive with peers outside of the group 

-Prosocial behavior within the group  

-Agitated over minor stresses 

Importance of Peers: Sociability in Adolescence  

• Peer interactions become increasingly complex 

• Peer group-> Middle childhood  

-Peers who interact regularly, defined sense of membership 

• Clique -> Early Adolescence  

-Small group of close friends  

• Crowds->Mid-adolescence  

-Large, reputationally based peer groups 

• Peers help with identity formation! 

Adolescents & Identity  

• Adolescents start exploring their own identity (in some domains)because they are seeking independence from parents  

• Some adolescents may take on negative identity  

-Idenity that is opposite of what is expected of them  

Peers & Identity  

• Adolescents want to fit in and find their place in society 

• Peer groups can help with this  

• Fulfill adolescents need for acceptance  

• Provide opportunities for exploration and experimentation 

             -Test out different peer groups 

             -Use peers as models  

             -Use peers as an audience  

             -Peers also serve as a secure base  

Peer Pressure  

• Adolescents’ desire to be accepted can also lead to an increase in their susceptibility to peer pressure  

-Conforming to one’s peers 

Belonging during adolescence 

• Fundamental need to belong ( Baumeister & Leary,1995)  

• Seek out new and meaningful relationships  

-Some of these may result in rejection  

• Belonging/Acceptance is associated with several positive outcomes  

Peer Ratings/Status  

• Sociometric techniques-> Adolescent ratings of peers  

• Popular Adolescents  

-Generally well-liked; disliked by very few 

• Rejected Adolescents  

-Disliked by many; liked by a few 

• Neglected Adolescents  

-Neither liked nor disliked by peers 

• Controversial Adolescents 

-Liked by many AND disliked by many 

• Social behaviors are strong predictors of social status! 

Rejected Adolescents 

• Two types of rejected youth: 

• Aggressive-rejected  

-Display hostile/threatening behaviors  

-May bully others 

• Withdrawn-rejected  

• Adolescents who are socially withdrawn 

• May be warry, timid, and/or anxious in social situations  

• At risk of being bullied  

Rejected Adolescents 

• Rejection is associated with a number of emotional and behavioral responses  

Emotional  

• Depression, sadness, upset, loneliness, anger, anxiety, shame, etc. 

Behavioral 

• -Avoid- Not associated with the situation try to get away from it 

• -Prosocial- People pleasing showing they can still contribute 

• -Antisocial- Anger demand attention from others 

Perceiving Acceptance/Rejection 

• Socially skilled adolescents 

-Can quickly and accurately decode/interpret social cues 

-Identify optimal responses that mention friendships  

• Unpopular adolescents 

-Selectively attend to social cues 

-misinterpret what they observe 

-generate aggressive responses 

• Social Skills Training Programs  

-Teach appropriate social behaviors 

-Help adolescents think through social experiences and select optimal responses  

Peers---Summary 

• Adolescents place more importance on peer relationships as they get older  

• Peers have a huge impact on development (e.g., identity) 

• Peers can mitigate the negative effects of parenting  

• Importance off peeers can make us susceptible to peer pressure 

-But this peaks around 14 years 

• Peer acceptance/rejection associated with various consequences 

Romantic Relationships 

History of Dating  

• “Dating” as we know it today is relatively new 

-Started around the 1920s 

• Historically “dates” were male selection opportunities  

• Carefully monitored by parents 

-Would bargain with other parents about the merits of their adolescents as potential marriage partners 

• Dating today is much more than courtship for marriage 

Funtctions of Dating(Paul & White,1990) 

• Dating today can serve at least 8 functions  

1. A form of recreation 

2. Source of status and achievement 

3. Socialization opportunity 

4. Learn about intimacy 

5. Context for sexual experimentation/exploration 

6. Companionship 

7. Contribute to identity formation 

8. Meaning of mate sorting/selection 

Dating during Addolescence 

• Dating among Heterosexual Adolescents 

-Prior research has identified 3 stages (Connolly & Mclsaac,2009) 

• Entry to romantic attraction(11-13 years) 

• Exploring Romantic Relationships (14-16 years) 

• Consolidating dyadic bonds(17-19 years) 

• Variations for when these stages occur 

-”Early starters” 

-Late bloomers 

Dating and Developmental Outcomes 

• Dating at an early age can be problematic 

-Associated with adolescent pregnancy  

-Also linked to increased social problems at home and school  

• There are also positive developmental outcomes 

-Supportive romantic relationships during adolescence can mitigate negative parental behaviors  

-Early intimate disclosure associated with more companionship in romantic relationships later in adolescence 

• Positive/Negative Outcomes Associated with Breakups  

• Negative  

-Increased likelihood for substance use/abuse 

-Decreased self-esteem & increased rates of depression 

• Positive 

-Opportunity for personal growth 

-Feeling stronger emotionally 

-More self-confident 

-Feeling more independent 

-Developing new friendships 

Attachment and Future Relationships  

• Early childhood attachment styles can predict future relationships  

• Mary Ainsworths “strange situation” test 

1. Mother and child are alone in unfamiliar (strange”) room; the child explores the room as mother just sits 

2. The mother leaves the room 

3. After a few moments the mother returns  

4. Process is repeated but with a stranger 

Attachment in Adolescence 

• Childhood attachments have implications for future relations  

• Secure Child    

-Parent is a secure “base” 

-Trust the parent 

-Goes to parent when upset                                       

• Secure Adolescents 

-Partner isn't going anywhere  

-Both can be independent of one another  

-Trust the partner 

-Goes to partner when upset 

-” Healthy” relationship 

• Resistant Child  

-Cling to the parent  

-Dependent on parents 

• Resistant Adolescent  

-Engage in behaviors that may pish partner away 

-Excessively “clingy” 

-Possessive 

-Demanding  

-Jealous  

• Avoidant Child 

-Indifferent to parents absence 

• Avoidant Adolescent 

-Emotionally Distant 

-May seek out isolation 

-May detach easily from loved ones 

-”I don't care” in response to breakup  

• Disorganized Child 

-Combination of resistant and avoidant 

-Reuniting with caregiver causes confusion 

• Disorganized Adolescent 

-Unpredictable moods 

-Cling to AND push away a partner 

-Want to rely on partner for safety, but may also fear them  

-Overly dramatic: fear of rejection, fear of commitment  

Learning Achievement & Work 

Transitions in Schooling  

• Children/adolescents experience a lot of transition in their education  

• Transition to middle school can be difficult and stressful for many adolescents 

• Why? 

• Top-dog phenomenon 

-Moving from being biggest/oldest to smallest/youngest 

• Transition to high school can be just as difficult  

• High Schools are: 

-Larger 

-More bureaucratic 

-Impersonal 

Academic Achievement 

• Institutional Factors 

• School Quality 

-Funding 

-Facilities 

-Teacher expertise 

-Extracurriculars 

Work During Adolescence 

• Approx. 80%-90% of adolescents are employed ar some point during high school  

• Almost 10% of employed seniors work more than 30 hours a week 

• Developmental benefits of working during this time? 

-Working several hours in laborer positions can increase likelihood of risky behaviors 

• Negative relationship with academics  

-10^th graders who work more than 14 hours a week 

-11^th graders who work more than 20 hours a week 

• Spending too much time at work, impact studying and school involvement 

 -Also greater likelihood of alcohol and marijuana use 

• Also postive aspects of working during adolescence 

• Gain valuable skills and mentorship from adults 

-Recall Vygotsky  

• Working can help adolescents from low SES backgrounds 

-Financial help AND adult monitoring 

Culture and Adolescence 

• Culture:the behavior,patterns,beliefs, and customs of a specific group that are passed down from generation to generation 

• Exposure to other culutres is becoming the norm  

• Historically the study of adolescents has been ethnocentric 

-Tendency to favor ones own group over other groups 

• In-Group vs. Out-group bias 

• Mere Exposure effect 

-We develop a preference for things we are familiar with 

• The culutre in which an adolescent is being raised can have massive developmental impacts 

• Cultural messages can impact a variety of individuals differences 

-The messages children and adolescents recieve may also influence agression 

• “Boys will be boys” 

-Boys are taught that aggression is sometimes okay  

-Boy roughhousing with another boy--> okay 

-Boy roughhousing with a girl--> aggression 

• Girls are taught that it is inappropriate 

-Girls seen as aggressive, regardless of the target 

Individualism and Collectivism 

• Individualistic Cultures 

-Personal Goals>Group Goals 

-Values Independence 

-Personal achievement and competition 

-Independent behaviors 

• Collectivistic Cultures 

-Personal Goals< Group Goals 

-Values interdependence 

-Group achievement and cooperation 

-Interdependent behaviors 

Cultural Influences 

• There are other cultural influences on aggression 

• The United States tend to be higher than other industrialized countries in... 

-Rape  

-Homicide 

-Assault 

• We also see some differences within the US 

• Differences between Northerners and Southerners (Cohen,1998; Cohen &Nisbett,1994;Cohen,Nisbett,Bowdle, SChwarz,1996;Hayes &Lee,2005;Nisbett,1993) 

• However, there is an important caveat to this belief 

• Southerners are more accepting of violence than northerners when it serves a purpose 

-Protect themselves 

-Protect their families 

-Protect their property 

-Protect their reputation 

• All connects to Culture of Honor ( Originated from to be seen as tough to protect their goods from others in the south) 

Culture of Honor 

• Men are devoted to the protection of their family/reputation 

-Especially from threats and insults 

• Men have a need to demonstrate that they are tough  

-Will use aggression if necessary 

• Men (especially White men) in the American South: 

-Commit more violent crimes in response to insult  

-More physically aggressive when insulted 

-Engage in risky behaviors to demonstrate their honor (manliness) 

“Asshole” Study (Cohen et al.,1996) 

• Northern and Southern males were bumped into and insulted(i.e.,called an “asshole”) by a confederate 

• Males from Southern states were more likely to display heightened... 

-Emotional  

-Behavioral 

-Cognitive 

-Physiological 

• Cohen et al.1996 study showed that southers had a higher amount of COrtisol and testoserone levels 

What about violent video games? 

• Early reseach is inconsitent 

               -Sakamoto(1994) 

              -No correlation between video games and soical problems 

• Scott(1995) 

-No support for the claim that violent video games increase aggression 

• Dorman (1997) 

-Increase in aggressive behaviors 

• But how have video games changed since the 90s? 

More “recent” research 

• Polman et al. (2008) 

-Playing violent video games caused boys to be more aggressive than only watching violent video games 

• Anderson et al.(2010) 

-Playing violent video games can increase aggression overtime 

• Saleem et.al (2012) 

-Violent video games increase antisocial behavior and decrease prosocial behavior 

• Coyne et al.(2018) 

-Longitudinal study 

-Early exposure to video game violence associated with lower levels of prosocial behavior 

-Associated with higher levels of externalizing behavior at the cross-sectional level, but not 5 years later 

Why is there a debate? 

• Differences in how people define aggression 

-Aggression--> intent is to hurt someone  

-Externalizing behaviors--> can harm others, but more focused on rule-breaking behaviors 

• Research Ethics 

• Burden of proof 

-Brown v. Entertainment Merchants Association 

In Sum... 

• Socialization does NOT take place in a vacuum  

-Parents, Peers,Media,etc. 

• Each system impacts our development... 

• Personality 

-Aggressice,hostile,impulsive 

• Emotions 

-Shame,gulit, depression 

• Social 

-Attachment, relationships 

• Cognitive 

-Attention, problem solving 

Wrapping it all up! 

• Developmental Psychology 

-How and why people change over time 

1.Puberty 

2.Brain development 

3.Cognitive Changes 

4.Identity Development 

5.Gender identity 

6.Sexuality 

7.Moral development 

8.Families/Peers 

9.School/Work 

10.Culture/Media 

• There is a lot of development going on during adolescence