Notes on Classify and Conquer
Historical Context
Max Müller (1823-1900) was a prominent figure in the study of comparative religion and philology. His scholarship emerged during a time of widespread colonial expansion and social upheaval, particularly influenced by events such as the South African War (1899-1902). The war illuminated debates over imperialism, national identity, and cultural superiority that significantly shaped Müller’s perspectives in his later years.
Publications
Müller's publication, "The Question of Right between England and the Transvaal," articulated his support for England's governance over the Boer territories in South Africa. He argued that historical treaties and agreements legitimized British claims to sovereignty. His work sought to provide a legal foundation for imperial dominance, emphasizing that the historical actions of colonial powers should have greater weight than the contemporary claims of indigenous populations.
Imperial Claims
Through his writings, Müller stressed the necessity of historical justifications for British control, counteracting the Boer arguments, which he perceived as lacking validity and depth. He portrayed the Boers' resistance as an impediment to civilizational progress, viewing British imperialism as a force for globalization and enlightenment, despite the ethical dilemmas that arose from such expansionist attitudes.
Max Müller's Interest in South Africa
Personal Background
Müller's ties to South Africa were personal as well as intellectual; he suffered a familial loss when a cousin was killed in the first Anglo-Boer War, which intensified his focus on the region. This personal connection, combined with his academic endeavors, led him to contemplate the implications of British imperial rule not just on a political scale, but on a cultural and human level.
Sentiment in Germany
The atmosphere in Germany at the time was one of public opposition to England, influenced by rising nationalism and critiques of imperialism. Aware of this sentiment, Müller found himself advocating for England’s cause as part of a broader narrative of Anglo-Saxon unity, driving a wedge between local German views and his professional stances on imperialism.
Outlook on Colonial Rule
Müller rationalized England's imperial grip as a justified response to the needs and desires expressed by people in other colonies, arguing that they were generally content under British rule. He noted exceptions, such as India, where the complexity of local sentiments presented a poorer justification for imperial rule. His rhetoric employed comparisons that highlighted the importance of retaining South Africa to bolster the economic and political strength that was deemed critical to the British Empire.
Academic Foundations and Imperial Comparative Religion
Lectures at Royal Institution
In 1870, Müller delivered pivotal lectures at the Royal Institution of Great Britain that laid the groundwork for a scientific study of comparative religion. He defined this study as a discipline dedicated to the apprehension of the Infinite, blending philosophical inquiry with empirical investigation.
Romanticism Influence
Müller's academic approach reflected the broader Romantic movement of the time, which emphasized emotional engagement and aesthetic insights alongside rational analysis. This combination shaped a unique understanding of religion, merging the subjective experience of spirituality with objective scholarly critique.
Understanding Religion
Müller distinguished between universal human experiences of religion—shared across cultures and eras—and specialized theological discourses that were often confined to particular religious traditions. This distinction allowed for a more inclusive understanding of religious phenomena, broadening the scope of study beyond Eurocentric frameworks.
Classification and Comparison
Methodology
Müller proposed a novel methodology for classifying world religions based on linguistic groupings rather than solely theological or philosophical differences. By employing his taxonomy of languages—namely Aryan, Semitic, and Turanian—he sought to categorize religions in a way that reflected their historical and cultural contexts.
Religions Identified
Müller identified major religions falling within these groups:
Aryan: Hinduism, Buddhism, Zoroastrianism
Semitic: Judaism, Christianity, Islam
Turanian: Confucianism, Taoism.
This classification was groundbreaking for its time, although it was not without its criticisms regarding oversimplification.
Limitations of Current Studies
Müller recognized that most comparative studies frequently overlooked non-textual or indigenous religions, which presented challenges to comprehensive understanding. He strongly advocated for the documentation and transcription of oral traditions, believing that this approach would enrich the field of comparative religion significantly.
Ethnographic Support Needed
He argued for intensive ethnographic research and fieldwork in colonial territories as a means to provide a fuller understanding of beliefs that had not been recorded in written form. Müller saw value in the integration of such data to inform scholarly work.
Challenges with Imperial Knowledge
Müller frequently encountered contradictions in the reports from colonial administrators, noting that inherent biases could severely distort the objective understanding of indigenous religions.
Need for Eyewitness Accounts
He emphasized the importance of firsthand knowledge, believing that only direct experience could yield dependable information about religious practices and beliefs. Müller celebrated the contributions of local scholars, such as Wilhelm Bleek, who provided insights that were instrumental in bridging cultural divides, particularly concerning South African indigenous cultures and languages.
The Role of Religion in Empire
Political and Religious Intersection
Müller maintained a keen interest in the interplay between knowledge and power, particularly how imperial authority shaped Western perceptions of non-European religions. He examined the political implications of religious narratives in colonial contexts, illuminating a complex relationship where religion was often used to justify imperial actions.
Cultural Superiority
His scholarship frequently intersected with notions of cultural superiority—a common theme in Victorian literature—where he framed British culture against the ‘savage’ traditions of colonized peoples to assert a dynamic of moral and cultural ascendancy, though this approach faced considerable ethical scrutiny.
Conclusion - Reassessing the Legacy of Max Müller
Critical Perspective
Müller’s classification systems and interpretations of religions must be contextualized within the imperial framework that significantly influenced his work and worldview. This perspective invites a more nuanced critique of his methods and conclusions.
Broader Collaborations
His efforts in comparative religion ultimately contributed to a broader intellectual movement that included figures like E.B. Tylor, where a constructed narrative about imperial religion reflected and perpetuated colonial values and policies, revealing the intricate connections between scholarship and imperial ambitions.