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Comprehensive Psychology Study Notes (Transcript-Based)

Humanistic Psychology

  • Focuses on growth, self-actualization, and free will. (Key figures: Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow)
  • Emphasizes subjective experience, personal meaning, and the human potential for growth.

Cognitive Psychology

  • Studies how we think, perceive, remember, solve problems, and process information.

Behavioral Psychology

  • Focuses on learning through conditioning, reinforcement, and punishment.
  • Key figures: John B. Watson, B.F. Skinner.

Biological Psychology

  • Examines how brain structure and function, neurotransmitters, and genetics drive behavior.

Evolutionary Psychology

  • Analyzes traits and behaviors as adaptations shaped by natural selection to enhance survival and reproduction.

Psychoanalytic Psychology

  • Emphasizes unconscious drives, childhood conflicts, and their influence on behavior.
  • Foundational ideas from Sigmund Freud.

Sociocultural Psychology

  • Explores how culture, norms, peers, and societal context shape behavior and mental processes.

Cultural Norms and Biases

  • Cultural Norms: Rules and expectations for behavior in a society.
  • Confirmation Bias: Tendency to seek information that supports preconceptions.
  • Hindsight Bias: Perceiving events as having been predictable after they occur (the "I knew it all along" effect).
  • Overconfidence: Overestimating one’s accuracy or knowledge.

Research Designs

  • Experimental Methodologies: Manipulate variables to test cause-and-effect relationships.
  • Non-Experimental Methodologies: Observation, surveys, correlational studies; no active manipulation of variables.
  • Case Study: In-depth examination of one person or a single group.

Page 2: Core Concepts in Research Design

  • Correlation: Relationship between variables; does not imply causation.
  • Meta-Analysis: Statistical technique that combines results from multiple studies.
  • Naturalistic Observation: Observing subjects in their natural environment without interference.

Experimental Design Terms

  • Hypothesis: Testable prediction about a relationship between variables.
  • Falsifiable: The ability for a hypothesis to be proven wrong by data.
  • Operational Definitions: Clear, measurable definitions of variables.
  • Replication: Repeating a study to assess reliability.
  • IV (Independent Variable): The factor deliberately manipulated.
  • DV (Dependent Variable): The outcome measured.
  • Confounding Variable: An outside variable that could affect results.
  • Population: Entire group to which results are intended to generalize.
  • Sample: Subset of the population actually studied.
  • Representative Sample: A sample that accurately reflects the population.
  • Random Sampling: Every member of the population has an equal chance of selection.
  • Convenience Sampling: Selecting participants because they are easy to recruit; less generalizable.
  • Sampling Bias: Systematic error due to non-representative sampling.
  • Generalizability: Extent to which findings apply to the broader population.
  • Experimental Group: Receives the treatment.
  • Control Group: Does not receive the treatment.

Page 2 Continuation: Additional Experimental Design Terms

  • Placebo: Inactive treatment used to control for expectations (e.g., sugar pill).
  • Single-Blind: Participants do not know whether they are in the experimental or control group.
  • Double-Blind: Neither participants nor researchers know who is in which group.
  • Experimenter Bias: Researchers’ expectations influence study outcomes or interpretations.
  • Social Desirability Bias: Participants respond in ways they believe are socially acceptable.
  • Qualitative Data: Descriptive data in words.
  • Quantitative Data: Numerical data.
  • Structured Interviews: Pre-set questions asked in a fixed order.
  • Likert Scales: Attitude or opinion scales (e.g., 1–5).
  • Peer Review: Evaluation of research by other scientists.

Non-Experimental Methods

  • Directionality Problem: Uncertainty about which variable causes the other.
  • Third Variable Problem: A separate variable explains the observed relationship.
  • Survey: Self-reported responses collected from participants.
  • Wording Effects: Question phrasing influences responses.
  • Self-Report Bias: Inaccuracies in self-reported data due to memory, social desirability, or other factors.

Ethics in Research

  • Institutional Review Board (IRB): Committee that reviews and approves studies for ethical compliance.
  • Informed Consent: Participants understand risks and agree to participate voluntarily.
  • Informed Assent: Minor participants’ agreement (with parental consent) to participate.
  • Protection from Harm: Researchers must minimize risk and avoid lasting harm.
  • Confidentiality: Keep participants’ identities private.
  • Deception: May be used if necessary and harmless; participants must be debriefed afterward.
  • Confederates: Actors working for the researcher to help conduct the study.
  • Debriefing: Post-study explanation of the study’s purpose and procedures.

Data & Statistics

  • Central Tendency: Measures of the center of a data set (Mean, Median, Mode).
  • Range: Difference between the highest and lowest values, ext{Range} = x{ ext{max}} - x{ ext{min}}.
  • Normal Curve: Bell-shaped distribution; 68–95–99% rule.
  • Skewness: Asymmetry of a distribution (toward high or low values).
  • Bimodal Distribution: Distribution with two distinct peaks.
  • Percentile Rank: Proportion of scores at or below a given value, ext{PercentileRank}(x) = \frac{ ext{#}\{i: x_i \le x}}{n} \times 100\%.
  • Regression to the Mean: Extreme scores tend to move closer to the average on repeated measurement.
  • Variation: Spread of scores around the center.
  • Standard Deviation: Typical distance of scores from the mean; for a sample, s = \sqrt{\frac{1}{n-1}\sum{i=1}^n (xi - \bar{x})^2}.
  • Scatterplot: Graphical representation of the relationship between two variables.
  • Correlation Coefficient (r): Strength and direction of a linear relationship, r = \frac{\sum{i=1}^n (xi - \bar{x})(yi - \bar{y})}{\sqrt{\sum{i=1}^n (xi - \bar{x})^2}\sqrt{\sum{i=1}^n (y_i - \bar{y})^2}}. - Note: r ranges from -1 to +1.
  • Effect Size: Magnitude of a difference or relationship (e.g., how large the effect is).
  • Statistical Significance (p < .05): Probability that the observed result occurred by chance is less than 5%; commonly used threshold for significance.
  • Additional Notes: When reporting, distinguish between practical significance (real-world impact) and statistical significance.

Formulas and Key Representations

  • Mean: \bar{x} = \frac{1}{n}\sum{i=1}^n xi.
  • Range: \text{Range} = x{ ext{max}} - x{ ext{min}}.
  • Standard Deviation (sample): s = \sqrt{\frac{1}{n-1}\sum{i=1}^n (xi - \bar{x})^2}.
  • Correlation Coefficient: r = \frac{\sum (xi - \bar{x})(yi - \bar{y})}{\sqrt{\sum (xi - \bar{x})^2}\sqrt{\sum (yi - \bar{y})^2}}.
  • Percentile Rank: \text{PercentileRank}(x) = \frac{#{i: x_i \le x}}{n} \times 100\%.
  • Normal Curve (Empirical Rule): P(|X-\mu| \le \sigma) \approx 0.68, P(|X-\mu| \le 2\sigma) \approx 0.95, P(|X-\mu| \le 3\sigma) \approx 0.99.

Real-World Relevance and Implications

  • Integrates foundational principles across approaches: human growth needs, cognitive processing, behavioral learning, biological bases, evolutionary perspectives, psychosocial context, and ethical practice.
  • Emphasizes that correlations do not imply causation; use experimental designs to infer causality.
  • Highlights the importance of ethics, informed consent, and minimizing harm in research involving human participants.
  • Underscores how biases and measurement choices can influence findings and interpretations.
  • Connects to practice: understanding biases improves assessment, therapy, and interpretation of research in clinical and educational settings.