Enlightenment

Agricultural Revolution: a series of developments in the 18th century that increased crop production and overall improved agriculture 

Crop rotation: introduction of nitrogen-rich crops into the crop rotation in order to replenish the soil after the depletion of other crops 

Jethro Tull: invented the seed drill and many other advancements towards the improvement and efficiency of agriculture 

Potato and maize: brought over from the americas, very easy to store over the winter, and improved European diets 

Enclosure Movement: legally enclosed agricultural lands in England, forced many small farmers out of agriculture and into different industries 

Mercantilism: Government controlled economy

Global economy: increased integration of economy between countries, better global economic connection 

Slave trade and plantation economy: The slave trade between the Americas and Europe led to the development of large plantations which slaves were forced to work

Growth of port cities: Port cities became increasingly necessary as transportation between countries for trade increased 

High culture: the literary and artistic world of the educated and wealthy ruling class 

Popular culture: the written and unwritten lore of the masses, which is passed down orally

Spectator and The Female Spectator: Spectator was a magazine written by Joseph Addison and Richard Steele in order to bring philosophy into everyday education. This especially interested women and the Female Spectator was created by Eliza Haywood and the articles were written by females. 

Realschule: A school created in Germany which aimed to provide a broader education in business for young boys 

Carnival: celebrating in the days leading up to Lent. Viewed as a time of indulgence- consumed foods, heavily drank, sex, sang profanities and dirty songs, let out pent up aggression

Volkschulen: state-supported primary schools in the Austrian Empire 

18^th century medicine: increase and development of surgery for the upper-class, surgeons and physicians. The middle and lower-class were treated by apothecaries, midwives and faith healers. Hospitals were in awful condition and hygiene was still an issue. 

Taverns and alcohol: Taverns were a gathering place for men. Alcohol was viewed differently between the lower classes and upper classes. The lower classes usually drank cheap alcohol on a regular basis until they were black out drunk. The upper class usually drank more expensive alcohol on a regular basis but not as much as the lower class

Population growth: decline in death rate, improved nutrition, end of the bubonic plague, and increase in marriage

Ideas about children: in the 18th century the upper class began to view childhood as crucial to human development. They began to nurture their children and value each child. In the lower classes, they found children to be a source of anxiety and economic burden. These children were often put in founding homes, hospitals, or the parents committed infanticide, increasing the infant death rate. 

European marriage and birth rate patterns: Europeans began to get married later in life in order to start their lives separate from their parents. This decreased the average children to around 2-3 per couple. 

Peasant life: Peasants often had to rely on household manufacturing or worked as servants but if there was a bad harvest or poor employment they were deduced to beggars. 

Tithes: 10% of earnings given to the church and the clergy

Peasant obligations to nobles: Peasants relied on the nobles to get by as a result of the enclosure act

Peasants in Eastern Europe: increase in serfdom

Village life: Village life completely changed by the enclosure acts- no longer are whole villages able to have communal gardens or farmland

Immanuel Kant: defined the Enlightenment as a specific era in time

Enlightenment: man’s leaving his self-caused immaturity while in other periods people were unable to use their intelligence without the guidance of another

Bernard de Fontenelle: Secretary of the French Royal Academy from 1691-2741. Understood an array of scientific knowledge and knew how to explain it in an understandable way to others. Wrote “Plurality of Worlds”- a conversation between a lady aristocrat and her lover about the stars. By the end of the book the lady can understand the stars and the issues with religion. 

Skepticism: distrust of religion at the end of the 17th century by portraying the churches as enemies of scientific progress 

Pierre Bayle: Protestant who was one of the leading critics of tradition attitudes. Specifically supported religious tolerance and criticized superstition, religious intolerance, and dogmatism. 

Cook’s Travels: Written about his travels to Tahiti, New Zealand and Australia. Introduced the European people to different well-functioning cultures. 

Cultural Relativism: Understanding of different cultures and not viewing them as any better or worse than your own. 

Isaac Newton: Developed the Newtonian World Model, the scientific method, and reason which are all utilized throughout the Enlightenment

Locke’s tabula rasa: Individuals are born as a “blank slate” and are developed by their environment and experiences. 

Thomas Hobbes: English political thinker 

Leviathan: Written by Thomas Hobbes and discussed that humans were driven by animal instincts and needed to be controlled by a “Great Leviathan” who had unlimited power 

John Locke: English political thinker 

Two Treatises of Government: Written by John Locked and developed his idea that everyone naturally wants to live in a state of peace. Humans have three naturally-given rights (life, liberty, and property) which needed to be protected so they formed a government. There is a social contract between the government and the people to protect these rights and submit to government. 

Jean-Jacques Rousseau: French philosopher 

The Social Contract: Written by Rousseau in 1762 and argued that society should be governed by the general will of the public. Liberty was found when those are forced to follow what is best for everyone. 

Romanticism: artistic movement which began at the end of the 18th century. Balance of heart and mind 

Emilie : Written by Rousseau and discussed the education of the “natural man.” Education should foster natural instinct. People should seek a  balance of heart and mind. 

Philosophes: literary people, professors, journalists, statesmen, economists, political scientists, and social reformers

Cosmopolitan: modern, urban, trendy

Baron de Montesquieu: wrote the “Persian Letters” which criticized the French government and Catholic Church. Wrote “the Spirit of the Laws” which applied to scientific relationships to political scenarios. Also developed different types of government and the importance of separation of powers. 

Separation of Powers: dividing the government into different branches which allows for stability and security to the government and countries 

Voltaire: witty playwright and philosopher who influenced lots of Enlightenment thought. In 1733 he wrote “Philosophic Letters on the English,” which shared his appreciation of freedom of press, and religious tolerance, and criticized French oppression. Later in his life, he continued to fight for religious toleration and deism

Deism: A belief commonly shared by philosophes, God created the world but was not actively involved in it. Based around the Newtonian World Machine. 

Denis Diderot: Familiar with many subjects and languages and an influential philosopher of the time. Best known for the writings of Encyclopedia. 

Encyclopedia: Written by David Diderot and introduced a new way of thinking. Had a variety of information on multiple subjects. 

David Hume: Scottish philosopher who introduced the social sciences. Wrote “Treatise on Human Nature” which discussed the idea that everyone was driven by a similar common sense and when humans are examined enough their behavior can become a science of sorts. 

Baron Paul d’Holbach: German aristocrat who was a devout atheist. Wrote “System of Nature” in 1770 and discussed the idea that everything was a matter of motion, humans were machines, and God was unnecessary. 

Marie-Jean de Condorcet: French philosopher who believed that humans had been through nine stages of history already and the 10th stage of perfection was coming. Discussed these thoughts in his book, “The Progress of the Human Mind.” 

Church power in European states: The church was becoming nationalized by the individual states, often under their control

Dissolution of the Jesuits: The Jesuits were dissolved due to their increased, threatening political influence and the rejection of Portugal, France, and Spain

Religious toleration: Religious toleration was supported by philosophes but not by many rulers 

Pogroms: allowed for the looting and massacre of Jewish communities 

Tolerance of Jews: Most rulers did not accept the jews (minus Joseph II) and Enlightenment thinkers wanted to accept them

Catholic worship: mostly prayers to saints, pilgrimages, and collection of relics

Pietism: response to the desire for a deeper personal devotion to God

John Wesley: Ordained Angelican minister who experienced a holy experience and determined that God’s grace is what saved him. He continued to minister as a missionary, preaching to the lower class in fields in order to spread the gospel. 

Methodism: Originally a sect of the Anglican Church which did good works. Separated into a different religion after the death of John Wesley. 

Mary Astell: Daughter of a coal miner who argued that women should be educated and argued for equal marriage roles. 

Mary Wollstonecraft: the originator of modern feminism. Used reason to convey the absurdities of women not having the same rights and women having to obey men. Fought for equality in economy, politics and education.

Feminism: Fight for equality for women

Salons: elegant drawing rooms in the homes of the urban wealthy where invited philosophers and guests gathered and had philosophical discussions

Marie-Therese de Geoffrin: Often hosted encyclopedists and offered assistance to their discussions

Marquise de Deffand: hosted Montesquieu, Hume, and Voltaire 

Rococo: emphasized grace and gentleness in art, present in decoration and architecture. 

Antoine Watteau: Often painted aristocratic life and is viewed as one of the leading figures of Rococo art style. Focused on the beauty and fragility of happiness. 

Balthasar Neumann: Did rococo art in architecture, specifically in churches and palaces. Focused on fluidity of motion, making his work not secular or spiritual. 

Neoclassicism: captures the dignity and simplicity of the classical style of Ancient Greece and Rome 

Jacques-Louis David: Leader of neoclassicism, showing the values of morality, patriotism, and honor throughout his work. He often recreated Roman history in his work.  

Johann Sebastian Bach: Prominent composer of the time, specializing in worship music for Christ. Music director at Church of Saint Thomas. (Baroque) 

George Frederick Handel: Mostly a secular artist, with many pieces made for an artist. Most known for his worship music despite that being a minority in his work. (Baroque)

Franz Joseph Haydn: Around 104 pieces which stemmed from his career as a music director for the wealthy. Freedoms of England inspired him in his work as a playwright. (Classical)

Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart: Child prodigy who failed to get his own patron. Wrote operas, music, and compositions passionately until his death. 

Samuel Richardson: Wrote one of the first novels, “Pamela,” about the importance of good virtue and the sentiment of the 18th century. 

Henry Fielding: wrote about those who survived through wit, specifically real lower-class people in English society. “The History of Tom Jones” 

Edward Gibbon: wrote secular historical accounts. “Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire” blamed the fall on Christianity and had hope because of the changes in England. 

Natural laws: the laws which naturally drive all humans and the world. 

Natural rights: inalterable privileges that ought not to be withheld from any person

Enlightened absolutism: enlightened despotism- took advice of philosophers and ruled by enlightened principles

Cardinal Fleury and Louis XV: Louis XV appointed Cardinal Fleury to drive his affairs, and under his influence he increased trade and commerce. After Fleury’s death he ruled alone and was weak to mistresses and ministers, the empire crumbled. 

Patronage: getting paid to complete something

The Hanoverians (Georges): At the beginning of their rule, the first two rulers were controlled by their prime ministers. 

Robert Walpole: prime minister during the rule of George I. Developed a peaceful foreign policy and increased trade

William Pitt the Elder: prime minister under the rule of George II, acquiring Canada and India, until he was dismissed. 

William Pitt the Younger: appointed by George III in a time of extreme criticism, Pitt gained the people’s approval

Orangists and Patriots: Dutch burghers wanted to decrease the House of Orange’s power (patriots) but the Prussian king sent troops to protect the Orangists and the patriots were crushed. 

Frederick William I: Ruler of Prussia. Developed the General Directory to handle affairs, developed the bureaucracy, and maintained the rigid class structure 

Frederick II (the Great): Enlightened absolutist monarch, with his life devoted to Prussia. Enacted Enlightenment principles, such as single code of punishment, freedom of speech and press, religious tolerance, and improved peasant life.

Maria Theresa: Worked to reform Austria. Diminished provincial assemblies, made clergy and nobility pay taxes, and centralized the power of the monarchy. 

Joseph II: Ruled by radical Enlightenment principles- such as abolished serfdom, passed the principle of equality, complete religious tolerance and public education. Although his subjects were unhappy with these drastic changes so they were removed after his death. 

Catherine the Great: Became queen of Russia after her husband’s death. Enacted Enlightenment laws such as removal of serfdom, torture, and capital punishment, expansion of the land-owning class, divided Russia into provinces and established the Chart of the Nobility. 

Charter of the Nobility: formed the nobility into corporate groups and were exempt from taxes and corporate punishment 

Pugachev’s rebellion: Cossack leader, Emelyan Pugachev, led a peasant revolt and together they killed many land owners until Pugachev was captured

Treaty of Kuchuk-Kainarji: Protected the Greek Orthodox Church

Partitions of Poland: three separate partitions by Russia, Prussia, and Austria until Poland was dissolved

Philip V: Established a French-style government in Spain and Castile law, language, and administration

Charles III: banned Jesuits from Spain, caused economic reform, and attempted to limit noble powers

Marquis de Pombal: Ruler of Portugal determined to restore the empire. Limited the power of the nobility and church. 

Italian states: Under the control of Austria. Venice and Genoa remained independent

Gustavus III: Enlightened ruler of Sweden, enacted freedom of speech, press, and religion, eliminated torture, and instituted laissez-faire

Christian VII: attempted to enlighten Denmark but the aristocrats felt threatened and ended his efforts