foundation anatomy

Lecture topic ( Anatomical terminology) 24/2/25

Anatomy : structure and organisation of living organism

focus →(bone, muscles ,organs)

gross anatomy - can see with the naked eye e.g muscles, bones

microscopic anatomy - only visables under a microscope

Etymology is the study of words

• flexor = a muscle that flexes

• Carpi =wrist (like carpal bones)

• radialis = radius

crus → resembles leg(latin term)

Anatomical directions

Superior (above)

inferior (below) e.g the liver is interior to the lungsAnterior (in front of)

posterior+ dorsal ( behind)

medial → closer to the midline. Lateral → father from the

‘proximal: closer to the point of origin

distal: farther from the point of origin

ANATOMICAL PLANES → Flat surface that divides the body into specific sections

three anatomical planes

1. Coronal (frontal) plane : divids body into anterior and posterior

2. Sagittial plane : divides body into left and right proportions h

3. transverse plane : divides body into superior and inferior porportionsmacroscopic anatomy (gross anatomy

→ visuals to the naked eye

→ embryology

→ surface anatomy

→ systemic anatomy

→ regional anatomy

• Microscopic anatomy

→ not visable to the eye

Terms

Cytology: the study of cells

Histology: study of tissue

Atoms - smallest units of matter e.g carbon,hydrogen,oxygen

Molecules - made by bonded atoms e.g DNA,water,carbon diaozide

Cells: cells perform the basic life processes

(Specialized types)

→ red blood cells (transport oxygen)

→ neurons (transmit electrical impulses)

Tissue (four primary types)

• Epithelial:Covers surafces and line cavitis(e.g skin)

• Connective: provides support and structures (e.g bone)

• Muscle: facilities movement ( e,g skeletal muscle)

• Nervous: transmits electrical signals

Organ - made my multiple tissues that work together

E.g the heart contains cardiac muscle,connective tissue,nervous tissue that work together to pump blood .

Organ system: collective of organs that work together

E.g the stomach, liver and pancreas play a role in the gastrointestinal tract allowing nutrients to be absorbed

BODY SYSTEMS

• skeletal system: consists of bones,cartilage,ligaments and connective tissue

Function→ posture & stability, protection,movement

• Muscular system: consists of skeletal muscle which produce voluntary movement

Function→ support , movement , energy storage (stores glycogen)

• Nervous system: coordinates and controls all bodily activities

CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Brain: control for movement,sensation and automotive functions

Spinal cord: transits signals between brain and body

PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM: consists of neurons,nerve fibers and ganglia

(Divides into) 2 things

• somatic nervous system (controls voluntary movement )

• Autonomic nervous system ( controls involuntary functions)

Neuromuscular training: improves the connection between nervous system and musculoskeletal system

What does it do?

→ it enhances movement efficacy and improved coordination, strength and balance reducing any injury

• Cardiovascular system : includes the heart,blood vessels( arteries ,veins and capillaries)

Function→ pumps blood to deliver oxygen,nutrients & hormones (helps remove waste products)

• respiratory system: consists of the lungs,trachea,bronchi,diaphragm and nasal cavity

Function → facilitates gas exchange + helps to regulate blood pH

CARDIO-RESPIRATORY SYSTEM (TOGETHER)

Importance: help by supplying oxygen to the mucous and organs while the body removes carbon diaoxide, these systems are crucial in maintaining energy production

• Digestive system: consists of mouth, esophagus ,stomach ,small & large intestines,pancreas,gallbladder and liver

Function → breaks down food,absorbs nutrients from food,elimates solid wastes

• Urinary/Renal system: consists of kidneys,uterus.uniary bladder and urethra

Funcation → removes waste from blood, can remove excess water as urine

• Endocrine system: consists of glands of the body e.g pituary,thyroid,adreneal,pancreas and gonads

Function → produce + release hormones that regulate growth,metabolism

• lymphatic system: comsists of lymph nodes,lymphatic vessels ,spleen,thymus and tonsils

Function → defends against pathogens + removes toxins & wastes

• reproductive system:

Males: consists of testes,penis,prostrate gland

Females: ovaries,uterus,uterus tubes,vagina, mammary glands

Function → produce sex cells , enables sexual reproductions

Integration of endocrine and repordtive systems

→ regulate reprodctiion,development and sexual health through hormone release

• Integymentary system: consists of skin,hair,sweat glands

Function→ help regulates bodies temperature + produces Vitiman D

INTEGRATION: allows us to function enduring survival and optimal performance

BODY

Head( Cephalic region) → includes skill,face and brain

Neck( Cervical region) → includes vertebrae,muscles and organs

Torso ( trunk region) → ( can be divided into thoracic region)

Upper limbs (arms)

Lower limbs (legs

SUPPORT

-the skeleton forms the bodies framework,supporting muscles and soft tissues(fat,muscles and skin)

MOVEMENT

-bones acts as levers and joints function as pivot points for movement

-muscles attach to bones via tendons (allowing co-ordinated movements )→ nervous system allows for the movement as they send signals

PROTECTION

-bones encase and shield vigilant organs e.g ribcage protects the heart and lungs

-physical trauma can expose vital organs to harm,underscoring the skeletal system’s critical role in protection

Hematopoiesis ( mineral storage, fat storage ,hormones,support)

→ red bone marrow,located in certain bones(sternum,pelvis) produces 95% of bodies blood cells

Red blood cells= transport O2

White blood cells=fighting infections

Platelets =blood clotting

Mineral storage

→ bones acts as reservoirs for some essential minerals such as calcium & phosphate(critical for nerve conduction/muscle contraction)

Fat storage

→ yellow marrow which is primarily found in long bones e.g femurs which stores fats or lipids as an energy reserve (can be utilized in extreme energy need states)

Hormones

→ bones can actually secrete hormones to help regulate mineral balance,sugar levels and even fertility

Three main cell types (associates with bone development)→ the three O’s

Osteoblasts: build bone by secreting the bone matrix e,g collagen and calcium phosphate minerals

Osteoclasts:Reabsorbs bone by secreting acids and enzymes which break down bone into material that reenter the bloodstream

Osteocytes:maintain bone matrix and communicate information about mechanical stress(trapped inside their own bone matrix )

(Blasts build,coasts clean up,cites watch over the site)

• intramembranous Ossification: the direct deposition of bone on thin layers of connective tissue (forms flat bones)

→ osteoBlasts secret bone matrix from ossification

• endochondral ossification: → begins in the 6th-7thweek of embryonic development, the process involves the replacement of hyaline cartilage with bone (forming majority of all bones)

Bones can be classified as there shape

Flat bones

• skull bones

• Sternum

• Ribs

Irregular bones

• vertebrae

• Facial bones

• Hypoid bones

Long bones

• femur

• Humerus

• Radius

• Ulna

• Fibula

Short bones

• carpal bones

• Tarsal bones

Sesamoid bones

• patella. /

Disphysis

Epiphysis

Damage to growth plates prior to bone maturation can have serious consequences

E.g growth arrest & limb length discrepancy , function impairment, angular deformities

Cortical bone(compact bone)

• provides strength and support for weight bearing + protects bone barrow

Spongy bone (cancellous bone)

• absorb shock and dissipates pressure + provides structural support

Osteoporosis→ depletion of bone particularly sponges bone(decreases the structural integrity of bones

Cause: calcium defieceies, menopause

Body landmark

spine or spinous process

Description:

A sharply pointed process or prominence

Examples

→ spinous process of vertebrae

Body landmark

Tuberosity

Description

Large rounded usually rough projection for muscle attachment

Body landmark:

Condyles

A rounded knob at the end of a bone that formed a joint with another

Body landmark :Ramus

Description: Arm or branc-like bar of bone

Body landmark:head

Description:A rounded expansion(carried on a narrowed neck)

BODY landmark:

Foramen

Description:round or oval shape opening

Examples

→ greater and lesser tuberosities(humerous)

Example:

→humerous ,femur

Examples:

Maniable,pelvis

Examples: femur,humerous

Examples: base of a skull

Body landmark:

Fissure

Body landmark: fossa

Description: Narrow,sliced,opening

Description: a depression in a bone

Examples:

Superior and inferior orbital fissures

Examples:

Cranial fossa

The axial skeleton is found along the center axil of the body

(Involves protection on internal organs &stability)

The appendicular skeleton consists of the bones of the limbs or appendages

(Attached to axial skeleton+facilitate movement)

Joints →typically catrgorised either by their functional classification or their structural classification

E.g sutures (found in skull)+Gomphoses (bones are held in sockets such as teeth)

Structural classification of joints

—> fibrous joints( bones connected by dense connective tissue with little to no movement

→ Cartilaginous joints( bones connected by cartilage,allowing limited movement)

E.g Synchondroses( bones joined by hyaline cartilage) + Symphyses(united by Fibrocartilage)

→ Synovial joints( freely movable joints with a fluid filled joint cavity

(All of these types of joints contains synovial fluid within the joint cavity )→ this provides cushioning and limits friction

FREELY MOVEABLE JOINTS

WEEK4

Musculoskeletal system 2

Musculoskeletal part 2

(Functions of a skeletal muscle)

→ is a striated muscle tissue that has a range of functions

• stabilization

• Energy

• Voluntary movement

• Generate heat

Ligaments are made up of connective tissue primarily collagen fibers

ACRONYM

Every player follows every muscle movement

Epimysium→ connective tissue surrounding the entire muscles (protects)

Perimysium → connective tissue that surround bundles of muscle fibers (fascicles)

Fascicle→ bundle of muscle fibers (encased in connective tissue

Endomysium(within + inside)→ connective tissue that surround individual muscle fibers within a fascicle

Muscle fibers( muscle cells)→cell membrane is cALled sarcolemma and the inside if the cell is called saracoplasm which contains tiny structures which ensure cell health and functionality

Myofibril→ made up of repeated units called sarcomeres(functional contractile units)

Action :the movement of movement that occurs when the bone moves

Flexion: angle between bones become shorter

Extension: angle between bones becomes longer(becomes 180 degrees)

Dorsiflexion → toes lift up- towards the dorsal side of the foot

Plantarflexion→ toes point down - towards the plantar side of the foot

Medial roatation (limb rotated towards the center

Lateral rotation (limb rotated away from the center)

Pronation(forearm roasted to be face down)

Supernaztion(form arm rotated to be face up(towrards the sky)

Abduction → moving away from the body mid sagittal line

Addiction→ moving towards the body mid saggittal line

Protraction → shoulder and scapula moving forwards and out

Retraction→ shoulders and scapular move backwards and in

Circumduction( 360 degrees of movement at a ball or socket joint e.g hip/ankle

Inversion ( movement of the sole towards the median place) e.g The sole faces towards each other

Eversion ( movement of the sole away from the median plane) e.g the sole faces away from each other

Long and short head → muscle refer to length of the tendon not the muscle length

Origin > the muscle is typically the fixed proximal attachement point and is less mobile

KEY PLAYERS IN MOVEMENT

• Agonist >muscle primarily responsible for a specific movement of a joint (the hero)

• synergist> muscle that limits or counteracts unwanted movements created by antagonist (sidekick→ allows movement to occur

• Antagonist > muscle whose action opposes the desired movement

• Stabilizer > muscle that stabilizes the joint (allowing smooth movements

Example( what muscle is the primary agonist for elbow flexion)

= the brachialis ( this is due to it only crossing one joint and not two, the ulnar is involved within the hinge joint

What is the antagonist for the elbow flexion

→ the triceps brachi ( the antagonist must relax for the movement by the agonist and synergist muscle to complete

What are the stabilizers required

→ the rotator cuff muscles maintain shoulder joint stability throughout range of motion

Concentric contraction : the muscle gets shorter because of the tension e.g bicep curl

Eccentric contraction:the muscle lengthens under tension e.g lowering the bicep curl with a weight

Isometric contraction: the muscle generates tension with changing its length e.g holding a dumbbell in an extended position

OPEN VS CLOSED CHAIN MOVEMENTS

Open chain movements

• the hand or foot is free to move e.g bicep curl or bench press the arm is typically moving within that exercise

Closed chain movements

• the hand or the food is fixed( in contact with stable surface)

• Movements engage in multiple joints + weight baring e.g squat (the foot is fixed on the floor and doesn’t move during the movement)

Pennation - arraignment of muscle fibers relative to the direction of force being generated

FOUR distinct patterns of fascicles

1 & 2 ( parallel) > muscle fibers parallel to the long axis of the muscles

3,4,5( pennate) > mucles fibers attach like plumes of a feather along a long tendon

Convergent muscles: typically shaped muscles which have a broad origin tendon and converge to a narrow tendon

Circular: charterisitcs of a sphincter that surrounds an opening

The neuromuscular junction →Sinhala from the brain need to be transmitted down thr spinal cord and out to the periphery where they relay a message to muscles to contract

Synapse (neurotransmission 101)

→ as more postive ions eneter the voltage will increase till 0

Once the action potential begins then more postive ions will move into the cell

When it reaches threshold= action potential will occur