GLOBAL ERAS

Age of Exploration = 1400s - 1500s
Age of Colonialism = 1492 – mid 1900s

Age of Imperialism = 1800s - 1914
Decolonization = 1940s-1970s
Neo-colonialism = late 1900s – present

WESTERN HISTORICAL ERAS
Medieval Ages/Middle Ages = 476 (fall of Rome) – 1453 (fall of Constantinople)
Renaissance = 1400s - 1500s
Scientific Revolution = mostly 1600s (1543-1687)

Enlightenment = mostly 1700s (1685-1815)
Industrial Revolution = mostly 1800s (1^st IR: 1760-1840; 2^nd IR: 1870-1914)
World War I = 1914-1919
World War II = 1931-1945
Cold War = 1945-1991

FAMOUS HISTORICAL EVENTS

Abolition of the slave trade and slavery = 1800s

American Revolution = 1776-1783

Aztec Empire = 1400s - 1521 (Cortes’ conquest)

Black Plague/Black Death = 1330s-50s (1347-1351 in Europe)

Century of Humiliation (China) = 1839 (Opium Wars) – 1949 (end of Chinese Civil War)

Columbian Exchange = starting after 1492 (Columbus’ voyage)

Columbus’ voyage =1492

Communist Manifesto = 1848

End of the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire/Fall of Constantinople = 1453

French Revolution =1789 (Fall of the Bastille) - 1815 (end of Napoleonic Wars)

Great Depression = 1930s
Haitian Revolution = 1790s-1804 (independence)

Inca Empire = 1400s - 1533 (Pizarro’s conquest)

Invention of the Printing Press (movable type) = 1444

Islamic Golden Age = 750 - 1258 (Mongol conquest of Baghdad)

Latin American Independence = 1808 – early-mid 1800s (France conquered Spain in 1808)

Martin Luther’s 95 Theses = 1517

Meiji Restoration = 1868 - 1912

Ming Dynasty = 1368 (end of Mongol rule) – 1644 (Qing Dynasty)

Mughal Empire = 1500s - 1700s

Opium Wars = 1839-1860

Ottoman Empire = 1300s (1500s = height) - early 1900s

Pax Britannica (“British Peace”) = 1800s

Pax Mongolica (“Mongol Peace”) = 1200s - 1300s

Protestant Reformation Era = 1517 (Luther’s 95 Theses) - 1648 (end of Thirty Years’ War)
Russian Revolution = 1917-1922

Qing Dynasty = 1644 – 1911 (Republic of China)

Scramble for Africa = late 1800s - early 1900s

Sepoy Mutiny = 1857

Seven Years’ War = 1756-1763

Thirty Years’ War = 1618-1648

Women’s Suffrage = late 1800s - early 1900s

Zheng He expeditions = 1405-1433

WORLD RELIGIONS COMPARISON

* What is capitalism?
- When one makes a profit off an initial investment, and then re-invests the profit to grow the economy.

* What disadvantages of a command economy (economy of communist countries)?

- They have all failed in history
- Lack of economic freedom
- Lots of bureaucracy
- Quota system (required production goals) led to corruption and mismanagement
- No profit incentive (need/desire to earn money)
- No sense of ownership.
- Blat: system of favors was very common and led to corruption

* What are some pros and cons of monarchy?

Pros: most efficient government (in theory), people have clear roles, monarchs can be well-trained, some constitutional monarchies combine the law with monarchy, in distant past people saw the monarch as a needed protector who would bring order and safety.
Cons: minimal accountability, succession problems, monarchs can be sheltered from reality, lack of freedom for people.

* How did China (since ancient times) and Europe (firmly in place by 1600s) justify monarchy?

- China: “Mandate of Heaven” = idea that ancestral spirits need to approve of emperor’s rule
Europe: “Divine Right” = idea that God made the person a monarch and people the subjects; king only accountable to God.

* What is a democracy?

- People vote and whichever side gets the most votes wins.

* What is a republic?

- Representative government – people are elected/chosen to do government work.

* What type of government is the United States?

- A combination of a democracy and a republic (“democratic-republic” or “representative democracy”).

* What are some pros and cons of a democratic/republic government?

- Pros: People participate in government, politicians are held accountable by elections, most popular type of government today (proof of being the optimal government?).

- Cons: Slow process, more powerful people often dominate politics and receive more benefits, ignorant voters, apathetic voters, corrupt elections and/or politicians, politicians over-promise to get elected, not everyone can vote, minority rights at risk.

* What does communism attempt to do (2 things)?
- Make a classless and as equal as possible society; Abolish all private property.

* What were some services/policies that communist government promised…and how did they play out in reality?

- Free education…education greatly increased (almost 100% literate, prestigious universities), but communist ideology dominated
- Free health care…chronic shortages and long waits to get service
- 100% housing…achieved 0% homelessness, but some people had preferences of location/housing
- Food for all…attempted but lots of shortages and long lines. Famines were common in the communist world.
- Equality (no sexism, racism, etc.)…women achieved equal status but were still often expected to do housework.
- 100% employment…achieved 100% employment but worker rights were poor, communist economies performed poorly.

* What is fascism?

- Emphasis on order, loyalty to a leader, othering (“us vs.“them”), promises of good times ahead, nationalism, militarism.

Decolonization Chart – Some Examples

STUDY GUIDE FOR THE WHOLE YEAR! 2023-24 AP World History

Success Criteria/Study Guide Units 1-2:

* Who is the founder of Hinduism, how old is it, where is it, and is it polytheistic or monotheistic?
- No known founder, and it is the oldest continuing religion (around 2500 BCE?), it is mostly in India. Most say it is polytheistic although the idea of brahman is kind of like “God”, so some classify it as a monotheism.

* What are the Hindu (and Buddhist) ideas of karma and reincarnation?
- Karma = rewards/punishments based on actions; reincarnation = being born again. A new life’s status is based on previous

karma.

* What is Moksha about and how does it relate to the idea of Brahman?
- Moksha is the goal of all Hindus – reincarnation stops and one’s “spirit” is one with Brahman (everything).

* What is/was India’s caste system about?
- Rigidly structured society based on occupation but commonly identifiable by skin color. People were expected to live, work, and marry within their caste (Order: priests, warriors, farmer/merchants, laborer/peasant, outcastes).

* Who is the founder of Buddhism? How old is it? Where did it spread? Is it polytheistic or monotheistic?
- Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha), around 530 BCE; spread mostly by trading routes from India to Southeast Asia and East Asia, only major religion that does not believe in God or gods.

* How does a Buddhist reach enlightenment (the goal of all Buddhists)?
- Accept the Four Noble Truths (life is suffering), follow the Noble Eightfold Path (free one’s self from desires).

* What are some differences between the four largest branches of Buddhism?
- Mahayana (#1; China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam): compassion is the ultimate virtue, no one can become enlightened until we all are (salvation), Buddha was more than just a man.
Theravada (#2; Thailand, Myanmar, Sri Lanka): Buddha was just a man, wisdom is the ultimate virtue, only monks can become enlightened, monks wear orange.
Vajrayana (#3; Tibet): Lots of mysticism (some do not classify them as Buddhists), Dalai Lama is the leader of the Yellow Hat sect, monks wear red.
Zen (#4; medieval Japan, US): silent meditation, believe in sudden enlightenment (often through a koan (like a riddle)).

* Who is a bodhisattva?

- Someone who can reach nirvana (the highest level of enlightenment) but chooses to help others out of compassion, like Buddha. Named after the “Bodhi” tree that Buddha sat under.

* Who is the founder of Judaism, how old is it, and is it polytheistic or monotheistic?

- Abraham was the first prophet (messenger of God), around 1800 B.C.; monotheistic.

* Why are the 10 Commandments important to Judaism?

- If the Hebrew/Jewish people follow the 10 Commandments, then God will protect them (Second Covenant).

* Who is the founder of Christianity, how old is it, and is it polytheistic or monotheistic?
- Jesus Christ (based on his teachings, etc.), started around 33 CE (Resurrection and its aftermath), monotheistic (but three parts (“Trinity”: Father, Son, Holy Spirit)).

*What does the Bible consist of? How are the parts different? Who wrote it?

- The Old Testament (Jewish part of Bible) and the New Testament (Christian addition). The Old Testament has a more punishing God while the NT has more of a forgiving God and Jesus. At least 40 authors wrote it.

* What do Christians believe in the afterlife, and how do you get to each of the three?

- Heaven (accept Jesus, get the required sacraments (depends on type of Christian), be forgiven for sins and/or breaking the Commandments), Purgatory (holding ground, also called limbo), Hell.

* Why has Christianity been so popular over the years (know 4)?

- Communicate to God through prayer, loving and forgiving God, promise of Heaven/fear of Hell, people are equal in the eyes of God, governments don’t have to be Christian for adherents, easy to become a Christian, sense of purpose in life, motivated missionaries spread it (a proselytizing religion), etc.

* What was the political relationship between the Roman Empire and Christianity?
- Jesus was a Jewish person in the outer reaches of the Roman Empire
- Some Roman emperors saw Christianity as a threat (questioned loyalty to Rome) and persecuted Christians
- In 313, Emperor Constantine legalized Christianity with the Edict of Milan
- In 380, Emperor Theodosius required Christianity in the Roman Empire.

* When was the Medieval Age/Middle Ages?
- 476 CE (fall of Rome/Western Roman Empire) – 1453 (fall of Constantinople/Byzantine/Eastern Roman Empire).

* In Medieval Europe, it is said that men either “fought, prayed, or worked” (women had mostly a domestic role). What do the three categories mean?

- Fought = knights (2% of population, had to be in nobility)

- Prayed = Catholic Church worker, monks, nuns, about 10% of society
- Worked = peasants (80% of population) and skilled workers.

* What was the labor system of serfdom about?

- Serfs (workers) had to work on a plot of land (manor or fief) for their lord in exchange for military protection, food, and shelter. The Black Plague ended serfdom in much Western Europe, but the system lasted to the 1800s in Eastern Europe/Russia.

* Based on loyalty, what was the social system of feudalism like in medieval Europe?
- Monarch (king/queen) = owns all land
- Lords/Nobility = oversees land from king in exchange for providing military service (knights)
- Serfs (peasants and skilled workers) = live on nobles’ land in exchange for housing, food, and protection.

* What is the European knights’ code of chivalry about?

- Knights in Europe committed a warrior code (Chivalry) which committed them to practice Christianity, protect women and the weak, and were to act like gentlemen. These were the ideals but there was also lots of corruption.

* What sorts of people were picked on in Medieval – Early Modern Europe (know 2)?

- Jews, witches (people thought to be in league with the Devil), Heretics (“false path” Christians), lepers.

* Why did Europeans often target Jewish people for 2,000 years? Know 3.

- Jews were a minority everywhere and couldn’t defend themselves well. They kicked out of countries many times.
- They were “traitors” who didn’t accept Jesus as the son of God and were seen as untrustworthy.
- Jews were used as scapegoats (unfairly blamed for stuff like the Black Plague).
- Jews were “greedy” and practiced usury (loans with interest) and banking which was sinful to some Christians.
- Blood libel and other false rumors spread about Jewish practices.

* How did the Catholic Church get so powerful by the late Middle Ages in Europe (know 3 reasons)?
- Tithe (10% religious tax)
- Donations of money and land to the Church (sometimes for forgiveness and sometimes as a gift)
- Payment to monks and/or nuns for prayer
- Each sacrament required a priest and usually payment
- “Good works” were required and money/land was a common substitute
- “Indulgences” the late Medieval Age were sold to bypass purgatory and go straight to heaven.

* What are some basics about Catholic beliefs and practices?
- Need 7 sacraments and good works needed for heaven
- Pope = head of Church, power of excommunication, and infallible, interdiction, called for Crusades
- Must confess sins to a priest for forgiveness (confession)
- Roman cultural and Latin language heritage
- Fancy chapels and cathedrals
- Priests cannot marry and must be men.

* Why did the Crusaders go on the Crusades (9 wars from 1095-1291)? Know 3.
- The pope demanded that European Christian knights unite to take back the Holy Land from the Muslims
- Adventure
- Opportunity for conquest (second born sons sometimes didn’t inherent land)
- Sins automatically were forgiven for knights who participated.

* What did the West learn from Islamic civilization from the Crusades?
- Muslims dominated the Crusaders in war, but trade increased and they learned from the Islamic world (medicine, education, etc.).

* What is the origin of the Byzantine Empire? What religion was it?
- After the Western Roman Empire (empire split in the 300s) fell in 476, the Eastern Roman Empire (a.k.a. Byzantine Empire) continued until 1453. Religion = Eastern Orthodox (or just “Orthodox”) Christianity.

* What was the Byzantines’ relationship with Christianity? What was their emperor’s role (“caesaropapism”)?
- They Byzantines considered themselves the leaders of Christianity (didn’t see Pope as the head Christian).
- Their emperor was “equal to the Apostles, called councils to settle disputes within the religion, and led the religion and country.

*What was the East-West Schism (1054) about?
- In 1054, the East-West Schism split the Byzantine form of Christianity (Eastern Orthodox) with Catholic Christianity. The Byzantines did not recognize the Pope as the religion’s leader (#1 disagreement), they did not recognize the Holy Roman Emperor, and had some theological differences.

* What was the significance of the Fourth Crusade (1204) and the Byzantine Empire?
- Being desperate for money to pay Venice, the Crusaders sacked Constantinople (capital of Byzantine Empire) and ruled it for several decades. This greatly weakened the empire and led to greater Islamic expansion.

* After the Byzantine Empire ended in 1453, which civilization/leader claimed to be the leader of (Orthodox) Christianity?
- Russia became the new center (Moscow = “Third Rome”) and their leader, the Czar (Tsar), = head Christian.

* What was the purpose of the Holy Roman Empire (800s CE – 1806 CE)?
- The Holy Roman Emperor was supposed to be the secular ruler while the Pope was supposed to be the spiritual leader of “Christendom” (Europe and beyond).

* What were three problems from the start for the Holy Roman Empire?
- There were power struggles between the pope and the Holy Roman Emperor
- The Holy Roman Empire was not very unified (no official capital and many petty states/kingdoms)
- The Byzantines did not respect this arrangement (they thought their Emperor was the true Christian leader).

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* Who is the founder of Islam, where is he from, how old is it, and is it polytheistic or monotheistic?
- Muhammad, present-day Saudi Arabia, 610 AD, monotheistic.

* Which monotheism today takes their Holy Book the most seriously?
- Islam. The Qur’an (“the recitation”) is only officially in Arabic and is the literal word of God.

* What is the ummah idea in Islam?
- The idea that the community of Muslims is important; religion and government are united in Islam.

* What are the 5 Pillars of Islam?
- Faith: say, “There is no God but Allah and Muhammad is his Prophet.” 3x in Arabic to be a Muslim
- Prayer: pray towards Mecca, Saudi Arabia 5 times a day
- Fasting: abstain from water, food, sexual relations from sunrise to sunset during month of Ramadan
- Alms: donate money to poor
- Pilgrimage: visit Mecca once in life.

* What is Dar-al-Islam (House of Islam) and Dar al-Harb (House of War)?
- The idea that there is an area ruled by Islam law and there is a world that needs to be conquered by jihad.

* Over the years, why has Islam been such a popular religion?
- Promise of paradise, communication (prayer) to a loving God, discipline in religion, proselytizing faith, easy to become one, apostasy can have severe consequences, ummah encourages it in government.

* How did the great Muslim empires view Christians, Jews, and Zoroastrians (other monotheists)?
- As “People of the Book” – they believe in the same God but fail to accept Muhammad as the final prophet. These people were tolerated as second-class citizens and had to pay an additional tax. (Submit, People of the Book, or death were the three overall options for conquered peoples).

* Over the years, how did Christians and Jews view the Islamic faith?
- They believed that Muhammad was wrong and it was a false path.

* What is the Sunni/Shiite division about?
- It came from a disagreement over whether the leader of Muslims should be a blood-relative to Muhammad or not.

* When Muslim empires took over new land, what were the three traditional choices for the conquered?
- Convert to Islam, be a Person of the Book, face possible death.

* What does jihad mean and what are its two interpretations?
- “Struggle.” This can refer to any challenge in life, but Islamists/jihadists consider the struggle a continuous fight to convert the world to Islam (“Holy War”). The word’s meaning is interpreted both ways in Islam.

* What was the Islamic Golden Age (750-1258), and how did it end?
- It was a time of great science and learning in the Muslim World. When the Mongols conquered Baghdad it ended, and the Islamic world’s emphasis on science never fully came back.

* Who is the founder of Sikhism, where is it from, how old is it, and is it polytheistic or monotheistic?
- Guru Nanak (1469-1539), Punjab part of India, monotheistic.

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* What was Tamerlane’s Empire like in the late 1300s/early 1400s?

- Loosely based on a return of Genghis Khan’s empire (coming from Central Asia this time) it was mostly Islamic/jihadist, brutal, short-lived. Some historians claim that its legacy was more extensive.

* Which ethnicity dominated the each of the three early modern Islamic Empires (“Gunpower Empires”)?

- Ottomans: Turkish (diverse empire); Mughals: South Asian (diverse empire), Safavid (Persian).

* Which early modern Islamic empire was the only Shiite one?

- Safavid. Present-day Iran gets its name from this empire as it was an alternate name.

* The Ottomans practiced fratricide in the 1400s-1600s. What was it?

- The practice of killing siblings so the sultan would have no claimants to the throne.

* How did the devshirme and janissary systems impact the Ottoman military?

- Devshirme: forced Christian boys to leave families (usually from Balkans), convert to Islam, and be soldiers. Janissary: elite corps.

* What was the paradox about Christianity and the Ottoman Empire?
- The Ottomans were tolerant towards Christians within their empire (People of the Book status) but threatened Christian Europe.

* While Europe was torn between Catholics and Protestants (1550s-1600s), what similarly was going on in the Middle East?
- Safavids epically fought Ottomans on and off for about 100 years.

* Why has the Ottoman Empire been referred to as an Islamic “commonwealth”?
- The Ottoman Empire was a loosely tied network of Islamic communities with lots of local freedom.

* What was the #1 industry and trade like in the Mughal Empire by 1700?
- Cotton/textiles leader (replaced spice trade), encouraged trade (unlike China and Japan).

* Why was Akbar the Great (1556-1605) famous in Mughal history from a religious aspect?

- Religiously tolerant (abolished the gizya tax for People of the Book, held religious debates, started a creed the Din-i llahi combined many religions).

* What was Aurangzeb (1658-1707) like as Mughal emperor?

- Expanded empire but insisted upon strict Islam (sharia) and restored the gizya. Seen as a bad ruler.

* What two factors best explain the end of the Mughal Empire (according to John Darwin)?
- 1: Central Asian invasions disrupted society; 2: Growth of European “companies” who came to dominate society. The British eventually conquered India (France kicked out after Seven Year’s War).

* How do atheists and agnostics typically defend their beliefs (top 4 reasons)?

- Science disproves religion/there is a lack of evidence
- Religion has led to bad things in history and is often immoral
- Teachings and Holy books can have contradictory messages in them
- Psychological reasons (cognitive dissonance, selective memory, etc.).

* What are the two important laws about religion is the United States?

- Freedom of religion (no official religion)
- Separation of Church and state (religion and government cannot mix).

* What sort of people were the Mongols in medieval times?
- Nomadic (moved from place to place), pastoralist (herded animals), small population.

* Why were the Mongols such amazing conquerors in the Mongol Conquests (1200-1300s)?
- Genghis Khan was a brilliant general and united the Mongols before conquering others
- Nomadic lifestyle helped; they very mobile and hearty (cities moved with the military in yurts)

- Expert horse archers
- Used propaganda to broadcast cruelty so many places surrendered without a fight

* Why did Genghis Khan seek to conquer the world?
- Genghis Khan’s plan was to conquer the whole world to make it peaceful (no more need to fight).

* Ruling the largest land empire in history, what was Pax Mongolica (“Mongol Peace”, 1200s-1300s) like?

- “Ferocious in war, but tolerant in peace”...trade and travel increased and some Mongols even acted like the people they ruled (notably Kublai Khan in China).

* What was the Black Plague and how did it spread?
- Spreading from Asia in the 1330s, this pandemic killed about 1/3 of people. It ravaged Europe from 1347-1350. It was mostly
carried by fleas on rats.

* How did the Black Plague change Europe?
- The labor shortage led to more paid wages and ended serfdom in most of Western Europe, more corruption in Church (same amount of power/land but less good people in clergy).
* What are the four “M’s” that describe the movement of ideas and people throughout history?
- Merchants, migrants, military, missionaries.

* What were Afro-Eurasian medieval explorers like Marco Polo and Ibn Battuta like?
- These men journeyed across large parts of Afro-Eurasia (Marco Polo = European who went to China (controlled by Mongols).
Ibn Battuta = North African who explored the Islamic world and gave advice on proper worship of Islam).

* What were the Silk, Sea, and Sand Roads like in the medieval world?
- Silk Roads: land roads from China to Europe, camel caravans, caravanserai guesthouses. Goods, ideas, technology, disease spread.
- Sea Roads: Ships stayed close to shore, Indian Ocean area (East Africa to China). Monsoon seasons determined sailing times.
- Sand Roads: North Africa/West Africa/Mediterranean. Camel caravans, slaves, salt, ivory, gold = big sellers, Islam.

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* What did the Chinese emperor have to follow?

- The Mandate of Heaven. The idea was that the ancestral spirits had to approve of the emperor. If not, rebellion could be justified.

* What was the kowtow ceremony in China about?

- Surrounding countries had to perform a ritual to admit the Chinese emperor was the true leader and gave tribute (money) to China.

* What was the practice of foot binding in China?

- For roughly 1,000 years (ending in the early 1900s), Chinese culture valued small feet (lotus feet) as a symbol of beauty. Girls would get their bones broken repeatedly to achieve this look.

* What was the concubine system in China about?
- Men had one wife, yet wealthier men could acquire concubines who were expected to have sex and kids with them (kids were illegitimate).

* What were China’s imperial examinations about, and who were mandarins?

- They were huge exams (tests) open to all men in society. Successful test takers became the government workers (mandarins). The exams were about Confucian values and Chinese literature.

* What is filial piety?

- The idea that one should respect their parents and elders. This is a very strong cultural force in China.

* What class of people in ancient/medieval China were more respected than soldiers?

- Peasants.

* Which three religions have all played the largest role in China’s history and culture?

- Daoism (originated in China), Confucianism (originated in China), Buddhism (originated in India).

* Who is the founder of Daoism, how old is it, and is it polytheistic or monotheistic?

- Laozi (mythical person), around 500s BCE (some say lived at the same time as Confucius), polytheistic.

* What is the “Dao” about and what is important to Daoists?

- It means “the way” – a natural approach to life. Nature and personal freedom are important.

* What is Wuwei?

- A Daoist term that means to “go with the flow” don’t stress out and just roll with whatever life brings.

* Who is the founder of Confucianism, how old is it, and is it polytheistic or monotheistic?

- Confucius around 500s BCE, some say it is more about philosophy than religion.

* What are Confucius’ Five relationships?

- Father over son; Elder brother over younger brother; Husband over wife; Ruler over subject; Friend = friend.

* According to Confucius, what are Shu, Jen, and Li about?

- Shu: reciprocity principle (people know their role in society and it leads to harmony); Jen: benevolence/love, good behavior, etc.; Li: proper conduct in society.

* Who ruled Japan in the Edo Period (1603-1867)?

- The Shogun (head samurai) ruled in practice, but the emperor was the figurehead leader. Japan was unified during this time and more peaceful (no civil wars).

* What was the famous warrior class in Japanese history called and what was the most extreme way they showed honor?

- Samurai. Seppuku was ritual suicide committed if a samurai did not live up to the Bushido (honor) code.

* What religions were there in Japanese history?

- Shinto (antiquity and later in 1900s), Buddhism, Neo-Confucianism (Edo Period).

* What are some basics about Shinto?

- From ancient Japan, polytheistic, belief in kami (nature and human spirits), torii (gates to Shinto shrines).

* What was the religion of Saharan and Sub-Saharan Africa in the medieval ages?
- Saharan (northern) = mostly Islam
- Sub-Saharan = mostly traditional religions.

* What are three key points about Africa’s geography?
- Lack of deep-water harbors
- Lack of rivers that cross the continent; making trade/travel difficult
- No large, domesticated animals in Sub-Saharan Africa native to the region.

* Instead of personal property, what three ways wealth was measured in ancient and medieval Sub-Saharan Africa?
- Number of livestock
- Slaves
- Wives (polygamy).

* Where did Mail Empire emperor Mansa Musa go on his famous journey, and why was it important?
- He crossed the Sahara Desert to get to Mecca, being a Muslim. He spent an enormous amount of gold and it drove inflation (made gold worth less) and impacted the local economies.

* What were the four key trading goods in Western Africa in the medieval world?
- Salt
- Gold
- Ivory
- Slaves.

* What were the large medieval empires of Africa (all were Islamic)?

- Mali (West, 1200s-1600s), Songhay (West, 1400s-1500s), Islamic empires (North).

* What was the living situation like for Native Americans (USA area) before 1492?
- Very diverse ways of living, about 150 language families and 600+ tribes, mostly hunter-gatherers and some farming, largest tribes would grow into 10s of thousands but most were much smaller, roughly 8 million people.

* What writing did Native Americans use (pre-1492)?
- No writing, only oral tradition.

* What religion did Native Americans have?
- Varied, but animism (belief that everything has a spirit) was common.

* What two myths about Native Americans that should be avoided? What is the reality?
- Myth #1: “Warriors/savages on the warpath”. Reality = there was lot of violences, but it varied by tribe and it was similar to other parts of the world in different eras.

- Myth #2: “Noble Savage” (pristine with nature, uncorrupted by civilization). Reality = Native Americans believed in animism so they respected nature but they tamed it as much as they could and were not morally superior necessarily.

* What was the Inca Empire (1438-1533) like geographically?
- North to South coastal geography and very rugged, capital = Cuzco (present-day Peru) advanced roads. No contact with Central/South America.

* What did the Incans and Aztecs use to write?
- Incas = quipu (knot tying system). Aztecs = pictograms (visuals that explained).

* What was the staple crop in the Incan Empire and the Aztec Empire?
- Incas = potato; Aztecs = corn.

* What metals did the Aztecs and Incas use?
- Inca = bronze, copper; Aztecs = copper. Both had luxury metals (gold, silver). No use of wheels (other than toys in Inca).

* Did the Incan Empire and/or the Aztec Empire use any large, domesticated animals?
- The only large mammal to be domesticated in the Americas was the llama/alpaca.

* What was the Incan religion like and what did they do to dead emperors?
- Polytheistic, worshipped Inti (sun god) heavily, continued to worship dead emperors (mummy palaces).

* What was the mit’a system in the Incan Empire?
- It requred people to work for the government for 2-3 months a year. This was their form of taxation.

* How did the Aztec (Mexica) Empire (1428-1521) grow and deal with surrounding peoples?
- The Aztecs conquered central Mexico area and demanded tribute from hundreds of tribes who mostly despised them.

* What were some innovations that the Aztecs were known for?

- Farming (chinampas = floating gardens), advanced astronomy, obsidian tools and weapons.

* What was notable about Aztec bloodletting rituals?
- Bloodletting rituals (including human sacrifice) were common and daily occurrences. The belief was that blood was needed for the sun to rise. Tens of thousands to a few hundred thousand people were sacrificed per year.

* How was war different for the Aztecs than in other places?
- It was seen as ideal to capture opposing warriors for sacrifice.

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SUCCESS CRITERIA/STUDY GUIDE (units 3-4):

* What was the main purpose of Zheng He’s expeditions in the early 1400s?

- Show off China’s superiority. They mostly gave away gifts, explored new places and established contacts.

* Why did China stop the Zheng He expeditions?

- The new emperor thought it was a waste and burned down the entire fleet.

* In general, what was China and Japan’s reaction to the European colonial powers?

- They were isolationists. Eventually they allowed small trading outlets (Japan = Nagasaki to the Dutch, China = Macau, later Canton and Hong Kong), but foreigners and foreign ideas were banned.

* What was the Renaissance (1400s-1500s CE) in Europe about?

- Meaning “rebirth”, this era followed the Medieval Ages, started in Italy, and emphasized the study of the classics (Greeks, Romans) led to new ideas, art, and more.

* What were some ways that Renaissance art differed from medieval art?
- Not exclusively about Church themes or royalty like Medieval art
- More realistic and far better colors from oil painting

- Better use of perspective, vanishing points, etc.
- Emphasis on Classics (Greeks, Romans)
- Symbols and hidden messages were sometimes hidden within the piece.

* How did humanism compare with medieval European teachings (scholasticism)?
- Humanism emphasized the importance of the individual. Peoples’ feelings were important and they had the potential to make decisions in life. This contrasted with Church teachings that everything is God’s will in a cosmic plan (scholasticism emphasized proving points (Christian teachings) based on logic and analysis).

* What is liberalism and why is it important today?
- Liberalism, relating to humanism’s ideas, is a belief system that is part of the mainstream culture in Western civilization today. It greatly values the individual’s feelings, experiences, and inner voice.

* What was the most important invention of the Renaissance?

- The printing press (1440s) by Gutenberg. This hugely increased literacy, the spread of ideas, and more.

* Why was Martin Luther important?

- A German monk who wrote the 95 Theses (critique on the Catholic Church) in 1517. This started the Protestant Reformation. Half of Europe would become Protestant, while the other half stayed Catholic.

* When was the Protestant Reformation era (1517-1648) like?

- 1517 (Martin Luther’s 95 Theses) to 1648 (end of Thirty Years’ War).

* What treaty ended the Thirty Years’ War and why was it important?
- The Peace of Westphalia ended it and countries agreed to not force their beliefs on others.

* How are Catholic and Protestant Christians different from each other?

- Catholics: need 7 sacraments and good works needed for heaven, pope = head of Church and infallible, must confess sins to a priest for forgiveness, Roman cultural and Latin language heritage, fancy chapels and cathedrals, priests cannot marry, women are not allowed to be priests, etc.

- Protestants: only faith is needed for Heaven, most (if not all) sacraments are not needed, clergy/priests are not needed to interpret Bible or for confession, plainer looking Churches, “preachers” (not priests), one should be able to interpret the Bible without a priesthood’s help, etc.

* Which European countries were Catholic, and which were Protestant during this time?

- Catholic = France, Italian states, Spain, Portugal.
- Protestant = England, Netherlands.
- Holy Roman Empire (Germany/central Europe area) was split based on the choice of the local prince.

* What is a heretic and a pagan?

- Heretic = false Christian path
- Pagan = non-monotheistic religion

* What were Europeans’ motivations (“Three G’s” + Technology) for the Age of Exploration?

- Three Gs and technology: Gold (get rich/find rumored places/spice trade), glory (adventure/fame), God (spread Catholic Christianity). Technologies: caravel ship, compass, astrolabe, firearms.

* Why did European countries want to establish water routes to Asia and later the Americas?

- To establish direct trading routes to get rich (i.e. spices, slaves, etc.).

* Why was Portugal the first to start the age of exploration in Europe (3 things)?

- Prince Henry made a navigation school and was obsessed with navigation
- Technology (borrowed from other parts of the world) allowed the Portuguese to sail across oceans and go upwind
- Government invested huge sums of money into this program for 150 years and were secretive about it.

* Why was the caravel important for the Portuguese Age of Exploration?

- It could not get lost at sea easily, tack the wind (go upwind), use cannons, carry a lot of weight for trade.

* Overall, what was Portugal’s strategy in the Age of Exploration and colonialism (2 things)?

- Built Trading posts. It was the first overseas empire and focused mostly on trade (eventually some colonies)
- Held strategic naval points in the Indian Ocean area (Africa and South Asia).

* What was the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494)?
- The Pope divided the world between Portugal (Indian Ocean/Africa area) and Spain (Western Hemisphere) for influence.

* Where did the Portuguese build their empire?

- African coasts and the Indian Ocean area. They would eventually control Brazil, Indonesia (“East Indies”), and were permitted to live and trade in Macau (island off China).

* In Spain, what was the Reconquista (722-1492) and Spanish Inquisition (1478-1834) about?

- Spanish Inquisition: hunted down non-Catholics, using torture at times, killed about 5,000 people.
- Reconquista: kicked out Muslim rule in Spain after hundreds of years. Eventually kick out all Muslims and Jews.

* Especially in the 1500s, how did Spain justify its empire?
- Converting the natives to Christianity saved their souls so they could go to heaven.

* What were the three most famous sea voyages from the Age of Exploration era?

- Christopher Columbus’ Voyage to the New World (1492): Trying to establish a trade route with Asia, Columbus mistakenly opened the New World (Americas) up to European expansion.
- Vasco da Gama’s Voyage to India (1497-99) established the first all-water direct trade route with Asia. It would eventually give rise to sea-based trade.
- Ferdinand Magellan’s Expedition (1519-22) sailing directly to Asia westward from Europe (yet underestimating the size of the planet), this was the world’s first circumnavigation (trip around the world).

* What are some myths (all untrue) about Christopher Columbus’ voyages?

- Proved the world was round, first to sail westward on the Atlantic, first European in Americas (Vikings went to Canada previously), first to set foot on USA (never did), heroic/good guy (brave but quite ruthless).

* Often mistaken for one another, what is the definition of colonialism and imperialism?

- Colonialism: when a country rules a faraway land (mother country vs. colony) and populates it with settlers (who become colonists). Laws always favor the mother country.

- Imperialism: when a country rules another land (often from conquest).

* What can be problematic about labeling “oppressors” and “victims” in history?

- Situations vary over place and time
- Considering alternatives is important when making judgements
- There is usually both good and bad on both sides
- Using labels or making general statements for entire groups of people can be inaccurate and/or divisive

* What was the “Great Divergence”?

- The idea that the Western world (Europe, North America), starting with the Age of Exploration, eventually came to dominate the world in the next 500 years.

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* What became the #1 killer of Western Hemisphere/American natives when they came into contact with the Europeans?

- Disease (smallpox and others) killed up to 90% of the population…called “the Great Dying”.

* What military advantages did Spain have over the Aztecs in the New World?

- Firearms, metal armor, horses, cannons, oceangoing ships, alliances with rival tribes, disease immunity.

* What was Spain’s “Requerimento”?

- Legal “rights” that were read out loud to the natives saying that they must accept Spanish rule and Catholicism or face war.

* What was Spain’s “Royal Fifth”?
- Like a tax, the Spanish Crown (government) took 20% of all gold and silver found on expeditions and from their colonies.

* What were the military victories like for Spain against the Aztecs and Incas?

- Both were enormous military upsets; a few hundred men took over the entire civilization.

* What are four major legacies of Spanish rule felt in the Americas today?

- Spanish language
- Class conscious society (from casta/hacienda system)
- Mixed race society
- Catholic Christianity religion.

* What came from the Americas and Afro-Eurasia in the Columbian Exchange?

Coming from the Americas: potato, turkey, corn, tobacco, cocoa, cassava, etc.
Coming from Afro-Eurasia: grains (wheat, rice, etc.), diseases, livestock (horse, pig, cow, etc.), sugar cane, people, etc.

* By 1600, why had Spain’s status as a world power diminished so much?

- Lost many wars to other European countries and their naval advantage (including Armada defeat in 1588)
- Inflation from gold and silver coming in hurt economy, wealth not spread out (stayed mostly in hands of rich)
- Colonization was not as successful in the long-term (not enough settlers to settle land, few chances to rise in society).

* By the 1600s, why had Portugal’s empire diminished so much?
- Lost most of their trading posts in wars (mostly to the Dutch)
- Colonies were smaller and did not grow much (more of a focus on trading posts).

* How was Trans-Atlantic slavery during the 1400s-1800s different than ancient slavery?
- Often more brutal
- Would come to be based on race and justified this way
- Hereditary/generational
- Life-long.

How were slaves acquired for Trans-Atlantic slavery?
- Most common = Europeans bought Africans in slave trading posts on the African coast. Africans enslaved rival Africans and Europeans ran the overseas trade. Also, a massive Saharan slave trade existed with the Islamic world.

* How many slaves died on the Middle Passage? On the Trans-Saharan trek?
- About 20% died on the horrific voyage from Africa to the New World (American continents). A similar amount died on the Trans-Saharan trek and many men were castrated.

* In the Americas, where did the highest and lowest number of the slaves go (from Africa)?
- Highest = about a tie (40% each) between the Caribbean (mostly for sugar plantations) and Brazil (mostly mining)
– Lowest: North America shipped in 5% of African slaves but the population would grow due to higher child births.

* What were some important “cash crops” in the Americas that depended on slave labor?
- Sugar (#1, very brutal jobs), tobacco, cotton (much more profitable after cotton gin invention in 1793), coffee.

* What was the triangular trade of this era about?
- European profits buy African slaves – slaves work in the Americas – profits go to Europeans and buy more slaves.

* Why were Africans needed for labor in the Americas?
- Up to 90% of Native American died from diseases and they were more apt to escape.

* What was Spain’s economic strategy mostly like in the New World?

- More of a “grab and run” mentality (mining gold and silver was common; less emphasis on settlement.). When gold and silver became scarcer, agriculture (big plots of land = haciendas) became more common.

* Why was Great Britain’s colonial program more successful (in the long-term) than Spain’s?

Spain: government owned the land (eventually split into large landholdings called haciendas), mining = widespread, government took 20% of all gold/silver (“Royal Fifth”), emphasis on a few big cities, no religious freedom, big wealth gap, casta system.
Britain: private land ownership and easy to get land, goal was long-term settlement and farming = widespread, local government/rights for settlers and trading companies, social mobility possible, indentured servitude attracted settlers, some religious freedom.

* What was the social order of Spain’s American colonies (casta system) like from the 1500s-1800s?

Peninsulares = people from Spain, had the top jobs
Creoles = full-blooded Spanish but born in the Americas
Mestizo = “mixed blood”, lots of sub-levels based on race
Indigenous people (a.k.a. Indians)
Slaves (some historians say slaves were worth more than the Indigenous people because they cost money).

* How did race (skin color) generally play a role in the Spanish vs. British colonial systems?
Spain: led to casta system and was tied to privileges, miscegenation (mixing of races) more common.
Britain: black and white (only 2 categories). Miscegenation was less common, racial laws were stricter (into the days of the USA).

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Success Criteria/Study Guide (units 5-6):
* When, where, and what was the Scientific Revolution?

- When: mostly in the 1600s
- Where: Europe (note: the movement was spread across a smaller amount of elite people)
- What: embraced scientific method and science, made many discoveries, less religious influence.

* What were Copernicus, Galileo, and Newton famous for?
- Copernicus = heliocentric theory; Galileo = telescope observations; Newton = theory of gravity (among other things).

* What was the Catholic Church’s response to Copernicus and Galileo?

- The Church thought these discoveries as threatening to Church teachings and saw it as a problem. Copernicus did not publish his works until right before he died, and Galileo had to recant what he discovered out of fear.

* What is the Scientific Method, now the standard for all scientific research?
- Ask Question, research, make hypothesis, test, analyze test, publish results.

* Overall, have societies been more matriarchal or patriarchal in history? What is the domestic sphere?
- Matriarchal = women dominate, patriarchal = men dominant. Almost all societies have been patriarchal.
- The domestic sphere refers to “homemaker” tasks for women like raising children, cooking, and cleaning. Women often filled this role.

* When, where and what was the Enlightenment?

- When: mostly in the 1700s
- Where: Europe (note: the movement was spread across most of Europe and was strongly felt in the middle class)
- What: a movement that embraced science, logic, and reason; thought that the societal problems could be solved with these things. Everything was questioned including controversial (and sometimes illegal) topics loke government, religion, and human rights.

* What were some of the big ideas (or ideals) of the Enlightenment (know 5)?
- Freedom of speech and press (people can say and write what they wish)
- Freedom of religious practice (originally more about freedom of any Christian branch but later extended into all religions)
- Separation of religion and government (“Church and state” not united)
- Abolition of feudalism (no more nobility titles/privileges from birth)
- Abolition of the slave trade and slavery
- Democratic/republic government instead of monarchy (voting = democracy, electing politicians = republic; monarchy = one person rule)
- Women’s rights (The movement failed in the late 1700s but picked up again by the mid-1800s and made more progress in the 1900s).
- Abolition of torture (used to be considered an acceptable way to get evidence)
- Public education (long-lasting movement well into the 1800s).
- Capitalism (make profit and re-invest the profit for even more).

* What did some famous Enlightenment thinkers say/do (know 3)?

Voltaire = free speech, separation of Church and state and religious freedom
Montesquieu = separation of powers in government
Hobbes/Locke/Rousseau = “social contract” debate about the agreement between the people and government
Diderot = wrote/compiled first Encyclopedia (outside of China)
Wollstonecraft and De Gouge = early women’s rights activists (but the movement failed at this time)
Adam Smith = capitalism (invest money, make profit, reinvest profits to make more money).

* What is anarchy?

- Absence of government.

* What are some pros and cons of anarchy, a theory popular in the late 1800s?

Pros: freedom, exploitative (unfair) power relationships gone.
Cons: high potential for chaos, has failed in history.

* What are some pros and cons of monarchy?

Pros: most efficient government (in theory), people have clear roles, monarchs can be well-trained, some constitutional monarchies combine the law with monarchy, in distant past people saw the monarch as a needed protector who would bring order and safety.
Cons: minimal accountability, succession problems (who comes next), monarchs/their court are often sheltered from reality, lack of freedom for people.

* How did China (since ancient times) and Europe (firmly in place by 1600s) justify monarchy?

- China: “Mandate of Heaven” = idea that ancestral spirits need to approve of emperor’s rule
Europe: “Divine Right” = idea that God made the person a monarch and people the subjects; king only accountable to God.

* What is a democracy?

- People vote and whichever side gets the most votes wins.

* What is a republic?

- Representative government – people are elected/chosen to do government work.

* What type of government is the United States?

- A combination of a democracy and a republic (“democratic-republic” or “representative democracy”).

* What are some pros of a democratic/republic government?

- People participate in government, politicians are held accountable by elections, most popular type of government today (proof of being the optimal government?).

* What are some cons of a democratic/republic government?

- Slow process, more powerful people often dominate politics and receive more benefits, ignorant voters, apathetic voters, corrupt elections and/or politicians, politicians over-promise to get elected, not everyone can vote, minority rights at risk.

* In English history, how did the Magna Carta (1215), English Civil War (1640s), and Glorious Revolution (1680s) all change their absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy?
- Main idea: England’s monarchy grew steadily weaker while Parliament (law-making body) grew stronger.
Magna Carta = king had to follow laws.
English Civil War = rejection of “divine right” (God appointed the king so he can do whatever he wants) and monarch had to work more with Parliament.
Glorious Revolution = gave Parliament even more power, added some Enlightenment rights (English Bill of Rights).

* From a colonial standpoint, what was unique about the American Revolution (1770s-80s)?
- It was the first time an overseas colony broke from a mother country.

* How was the United States a different sort of a country after independence?
- Government: not a monarchy and instead a three-part government that was a combination of democracy and republic
- No nobility/feudal titles
- Many Enlightenment ideals enshrined in laws
- Freedom of religion and separation of government and religion (“separation of Church and state”).

* What were some problems that plagued American independence?
- Fragile government (first government failed and it was a struggle in 1787 to establish our current government)
- Slavery contradicted “all men are created equal” and would divide country
- Political rivalries would intensify (political parties would form, etc.)
- Ongoing conflict with Native Americans.

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* What was government, military, economics, culture, and religion like in 1600s-1700s France (know basics)?

Government: Absolute monarchy (very strong monarchs like Louis XIV)
Military: #1 military power in Europe (but Britain had a larger overseas empire)
Economics: wealthiest country in Europe but government often in debt due to war and luxury spending
Culture: Paris = cultural center of Europe, people known as seeking all things pleasure-related
Religion: Catholic but often did not follow the pope’s orders (“raison d’état” = state is paramount).

* What were the four long-term causes of the French Revolution?

- Against privileges of the first two estates (estates system)
- Bad economy (50% of budget on debt interest, aided US Revolution, price of bread went up and impacted economy)
- Enlightenment ideas
- Weak leadership of Louis XVI.

* What was the France’s “estate system”, and who paid taxes?

- First Estate: Church, 1% of population, 10% of land, no taxation
- Second Estate: Nobility 2% of population, 20-30% of land, no taxation
- Third Estate: 97% of population, paid all taxes.

* Why was the bourgeoisie (middle class) important in the French Revolution?

- This group (part of the 3^rd Estate) started the revolution. They were well-educated, liked Enlightenment ideas, saw problems in society, resented privileges of the first two estates. The middle class often starts revolutions and mass movements.

* Overall, what was the government like during the French Revolution?
- It was very unstable. It changed 7 times (from 1789-1815), varying from forms of a different types of monarchy to different types of republic.

* What was dechristianization in French Revolution?
- An attack on the Catholic Church that reached a peak during the Reign of Terror (Convention). The government took its land to pay off the debt, appointed and paid Church workers, changed the calendar, changes helped fuel civil war across France (civil war would kill 200,000).

* How did governments across Europe react to the French Revolution?

- They feared that the revolution would spread. Most major European powers would go to war against France.

* How was France able to fight the rest of Europe?

- The made a citizen army based on conscription (the “draft”). This was the first all-out draft in modern times.

* What was the significance of “The Reign of Terror” in the French Revolution?

- The the goal was to punish anyone against the Revolution, especially members of the clergy and nobility. Violence spiraled out of control and 30,000 died including the king, queen, and Robespierre.

* What were Napoleon’s four mistakes that lost the Napoleonic Wars by 1815?
- Battle of Trafalgar: the British defeated the French navy. The French could no longer invade Britain (being an island).
- The Continental System: the French tried to forbid trade to Britain, but it backfired by corruption and Britain blockading France
- Peninsular War: France invaded Spain and to punish Portugal but it led to a costly 5-year conflict with Spain
- Invasion of Russia: 95% of the French troops would die in freezing weather in a rejected attempt to conquer Russia.

* How is Napoleon viewed in history?

- He is both admired and resented. He made lots of new laws that reflected the French Revolution’s goals, but he also was obsessed with war and power and was unsuccessful in the end (France lost the war).

* What happened to France after the French Revolution/Napoleonic Wars (immediate and long-term)?

- Immediate: Monarchy would be restored throughout Europe, goal was to have the world be as before.
Long-term: future European movements (in 1830, 1848, etc.) would be influenced by the Revolution. France would finally be a republic by the 1870s and has glorified the era ever since.

* At the Congress of Vienna (1815), what was the Concert of Europe (balance of power) & Holy Alliance about?

- Leaders wanted a “balance of power” to secure peace in Europe (meaning that the top powers remained matched militarily and held accountable by diplomacy). France got its original land borders back. The balance of power allowed that there would be several powers, but none who would dominate the others.
- The “Holy Alliance” was set up (by the most conversative countries of Russia, Prussia, Austria) to stamp out any future revolution activity across Europe (lasted until 1850s).

* What did Napoleon have to do with revolutions in Latin America?

- in 1808 Napoleon conquered Spain and put his brother on the Spanish throne. The Creoles revolted, saying that they did not owe allegiance to him. Even after Spain reclaimed the throne, the movement continued.

* What group started the Latin American Independence revolutions in the early 1800s?

- The Creoles (Spanish people born in Americas). Many were Enlightenment educated, had lots of wealth, and were jealous/disgusted by the Peninsulares (Spanish and born in Spain; had more privileges).

* How easy or difficult was the independence struggle in Central and South America?
- The wars of Latin American Independence were longer and more brutal than in North America.

* What 4 reasons explain the failure of the creation of a “United States of South America” (the goal of leaders Bolivar and San Martin?

Government strategy not clear (monarchy or democracy?)
Local warlords resisted unity
Distribution of land unequal
Racial and class divisions due to the legacy of the casta system.

* Overall, what are some cultural features about Latin American civilization today?

- Strong leaders, strong corporations, Catholic, Spanish/Portuguese speaking, indigenous culture incorporated into society at various levels, large wealth gap, higher corruption, class conscious society, mixed racial groups (more than in North America for most countries), patriarchal (men tend to dominate society) and machismo, importance of extended family and deceased relatives.

* What were the basics of Brazil’s independence in the 1820s?
- Mostly peaceful unlike other Latin American independence conflicts. Previous colonizer = Portugal (not Spain).
- Constitutional monarchy (Portuguese royal family stayed and ruled Brazil until 1889)
- Slavery continued until 1888 (last Americas country to give it up).

* What were the basics of Haiti’s independence (1791-1804)?

- Only successful slavery revolt in world history on a nation-wide scale (colonizer = France).
- Previously a French colony that was very wealthy from sugar plantations
- Haiti suffered from deforestation, lack of business partners early in its independence (many countries feared a race war might spread), corruption over time.

* What was the Monroe Doctrine (1823)?
- The USA proclaimed that no outside countries (i.e. Europeans) can invade the Americas. Mostly this was done to protect US interests in the region.

* What happened to the Native Americans as a result of this era?
- Many died from disease (up to 90%) after European contact
- The USA has “Indian Reservations”, and Canada has “First Nations Reserves”. Brazil has indigenous territories (almost all in the Amazon). Other countries (Mexico, Russia, etc.) do not have reservation systems.
- Cultural traditions and influences survive and impact some countries more than others.

* What are the basics of the Independence of Mexico (1810-1920)?

- 1810-21 fought against Spain and won, no monarchy or slavery (similar to other Latin American revolutions against Spain)
- Very fragile democracy through the 1800s, land/money still mostly in hands of elite (legacy of colonial Spain)
- Conflicts: Central American countries (1822-23; lost land), Texas (1833-36; lost Texas), USA (1846-48; lost present-day SW USA), La Reforma/Reform War 1857-61; liberals defeated conservatives in civil war), occupied by French (1862-67), Mexican Rev. (1910-20).
- Civil Wars in mid-1800s (Reforma) and The Mexican Revolution (huge civil war) 1910-20.

* What were the causes and effects of the Mexican Revolution (1910-20)?
- Causes: land and wealth very unequal, previous dictator-like president Porfirio Diaz refused to step down
- Effects: huge death toll, land in more control of the people, Church land seized, worker rights, schools built, PRI political party dominated politics for the rest of the 1900s.

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* When, where and what started the Industrial Revolution?

- Mid/late 1700s, Great Britain. Started with textiles (clothing).

* Why didn’t the Industrial Revolution happen in China first (China being the most advanced place for hundreds of years?
- Combination of factors: did not trade much with other countries (isolationists since at least the 1400s), did not have colonial empire with vast natural resources, didn’t use coal, arguably their culture and/or government.

* What is an assembly line?

- A manufacturing process where parts are added sequentially to make a finished product.

* What are the five types of resources?

- Labor = workers; Capital = tools (or cash used as a tool); Technology; Land = all natural resources; Entrepreneurship = starting/running a business.

* What is the difference between scarcity and surplus?

- Scarcity = not enough (based on demand); surplus = more than enough (based on demand).

* How did the rise of factories change society?

- More people in cities, more people could work for a salary, cheaper prices for factory-made goods, workers did not have to be skilled, wealth inequality increased between owners and workers.

* How was the Industrial Revolution also a transportation revolution?

- Steamboats, ironclads, railroads, automobiles, airplanes were all invented.

* How was the Industrial Revolution also a communication revolution?

- Telegraph, radio, phone were all invented.

* What were the two vital types of fuel (one in the 1800s and the other in the 1900s) in the IR?

- Coal (steam power), oil (gasoline).

* Today, what is oil used for?
- Gasoline, lubrication for machines, plastics, styrofoam, asphalt.

* What were some problems with urbanization?
- Inadequate housing (tenements), lack of sanitation, inadequate education, rampant disease, crowded cities, etc.

* What were some problems with labor in the industrial revolution era?

- Very long work hours, child labor common, no unions, no worker rights, no hazard pay, low wages, etc.

* What is bargained in collective bargaining?
- Wages, hours, work conditions.

* What can unions threaten to do if the workers do not like their contract/collective bargaining agreement?

- Unionized workers can threaten to strike. There were many violent and controversial strikes in the IR era.

* What sorts of mass culture became popular to the public by the early 1900s in the West?

- Magazines, newspapers, novels, vaudeville shows, movies, sports.

* What were some social reform movements in the West in the 1800s?

- Abolition, women’s rights and women’s suffrage, Labor Movement, men’s suffrage, public education, prison reform.

* What were some reasons for the common school (public school) movement in the 1800s?
- Ethical to have children learn instead of work a job
- Businesses wanted people to be literate and know basic math
- Way to assimilate certain groups of people (influence their culture).

* What were the first two “Waves” of the Feminist Movement (a.k.a. Women’s Rights Movement)?
- First (mid-1800s-early 1900s): suffrage (voting rights), property rights, education, prohibition/temperance, more career opportunities.
- Second (1960s-70s): workplace equality, reproductive rights (abortion, birth control, etc.), anti-sexism.

* The Abolition Movement (1700-1800s) in: USA, British Empire, French Empire, Japan, China, Latin America, Russia, Africa, Mid- East?
- USA = 1865 (all northern states were free by 1804, Southern and border states after the US Civil War ended in 1865)
- British Empire = 1807 stopped slave trade, 1834 stopped slavery in colonies (1843 in India).
- French Empire = 1794 during the French Revolution, but it was brought back and finally ended in 1848
- Japan = 1590 although forced labor continued
- China = 1910 (concubine system lasted until 1949)
- Latin America = mostly mid-1800s after independence movements (Brazil the last country to do so in 1888)
- Russia = 1723 but the medieval practice of serfdom (person tied to noble’s land) lasted until 1861
- Africa = 1800s-1900s; Trans-Saharan trade lasted the longest.
- Middle East = 1920s (fall of Ottoman Empire) and 1960s-70s in some Arabian Peninsula countries.
- Today: slavery still exists but it is illegal (human trafficking, debt bondage, child marriage, forced labor, etc.)

* What are four takeaways from the list above?
- Slavery ended differently depending on the place and time. The “Abolition Movement” was in the West in the 1700s-1800s.
- In general, the last region of the world to give up slavery was the Middle East.
- The USA’s Civil War was about slavery (as the central issue) and it was the most violent way slavery ended (600,000 died).
- Slavery was made illegal but it still exists illegally, and the exploitation of people did not end.

* What was Great Britain’s role in the Abolition Movement and slavery?
- A mixed legacy: the #2 slave trader over time, but a leader in the Abolition Movement. #1 world empire and navy in 1800s.
- Fought slave ships on high seas (they had the #1 navy and took any slave ships they caught)
- Ended slave trade in 1807 and slavery in colonies in 1834 (1843 in India)
- The government decided to pay former slave owners for their slaves

* In the Abolition Movement in the West, what were some arguments to end slavery?
- “Abolitionists” wanted to free all the slaves at once, citing moral reasons or Christian teachings.
- The “Back to Africa Movement” sought to free the slaves and ship them back to Africa. It died out by the mid-1800s.
- There was a struggle to first end the slave trade and then end institution of slavery. Some thought the institution would naturally die out.

* In the Abolition Movement in the West, what were some arguments to continue slavery?
- Some justified slavery with Bible teachings
- Racial superiority: now-disproven, the idea was that whites were superior and need to “take care of” blacks like a parent
- Some thought we don’t have a right to force others to end slavery and it would be too costly.

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* What was the Age of Imperialism (late 1800s-early 1900s)?

- This age was the height of the European powers. Africa was mostly conquered and empire-building was highly competitive.

* What were European jobs in Africa that had conflicting interests in the Age of Imperialism?
- Missionaries, civil administrators, settlers, soldiers, profiteers.

* What two inventions allowed Europeans to conquer Africa so easily in the late 1800s/early 1900s?
- Machine guns and better medicine (to survive African diseases).

* What was the “scramble for Africa” in the Age of Imperialism (late 1800s-early 1900s)?
- Africa was the last continent “open” for colonization, and many European powers competed over it since they had overwhelming technological advantages.

* What was the Berlin Conference (1884-85) about?
- European countries met to discuss how Africa would be conquered. No Africans were there and the goal was for Europeans to avoid fighting each other over future colonies.

* What was Social Darwinism?
- Now a rejected theory, this set of ideas claimed that some people/groups of people were (i.e. racial groups, the rich), biologically, superior. Natural selection (“survival of the fittest”) and evolution were used as an attempt to justify this theory.

* What is paternalism and how does it relate to the Age of Imperialism?
- This often racist/dehumanizing idea is about a “superior” people’s desire to help an “inferior” people because the inferior people do not have the ability to help themselves. During the Imperialism Era, many Westerners justified African conquests in this manner (i.e. Europeans should “civilize” natives in foreign lands (like a father to a son) in exchange for labor & natural resources).

* What was the Eugenics Movement (late 1800s-1940s) about?
- Now rejected on ethic grounds, this movement’s goal was to control human reproduction so only desirable traits would survive. It led to sterilizations, marriage restrictions, abortions, etc. of “unfit” individuals in some countries.

* What was so horrible about the Congo Free State and rubber?
- Motivated by rubber profits and the cruelty of Belgium’s King Leopold II, 5-10 million natives died and many lost their hands. Eventually a human rights campaign helped stop the worst horrors.

* What were some negative consequences of the Age of Imperialism?

- Economic exploitation: mother countries exploited natural resources, controlled exports (often single crop and/or cash crops) often for comparative advantage (i.e. if the climate was favorable to a crop then maximize the effort), raw materials came from colonies and finished goods came from mother country, taxes were collected, neo-colonialism (controversial idea about how much Westerners still influence business in foreign lands today)
- Problematic borders were drawn (uniting different groups and splitting certain groups unwisely)
- Indirect rule led to a broker class (natives helping Europeans, sometimes corruptly) for help to rule and this led to division
- “Civilizing mission” = controversial…emphasis on Western culture in education and development at the expense of native traditions
- European settlers, adventurers, soldiers, missionaries moved into lands…often these people were more abusive than the government
- Racism and racist policies (Social Darwinism, eugenics, paternalism, etc.)
- Harm to animals due to overhunting and/or environmental exploitation
- Violence was horrific in certain regions (5-10 million (disputed number) died in the Congo Free State, Herero Genocide, etc.)

* Often considered a horrible time in history, what could be argued as some “positive” consequences of the Age of Imperialism?

- Technology was spread: railroads, medicine, electricity, etc.
- Some morally bad institutions (according to Westerners) were stopped (i.e. slavery, polygamy, witchcraft, sati)
- Less tribal violence in some cases
- Some argue the “Civilizing mission” spread important Enlightenment ideas
- Rule of law introduced in many lands (laws were written down, courts, etc.)
- Private property introduced in many lands (could argue good or bad)
- Western languages were spread (i.e. English important for business today, Germans introduced Swahili alphabet)
- Uniting people in areas could be argued to benefit those people today
- Religion spread (could argue this is good or bad)
- Debate: what would regions be without Europeans? Imperialism varied by empire, time, and place? Reparations?

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Great Britain (United Kingdom) by 1914:
- Government: Constitutional Monarchy. By now the king/queen was mostly ceremonious. Parliament (two house legislature) = House of Lords (title of nobility required) and House of Commons (open to anyone).
- Pax Britannica = 1815-1914 (after Napoleonic Wars – WWI). #1 largest overseas empire of all-time. #1 navy.

- Dominions (Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa): predominately white (settlers) lands who were allowed to run their own governments but were still part of the British empire and did not have control of foreign policy. In 1931, this system became the “commonwealth” system (the countries now gained control over foreign policy).
- Colonies: (Americas: Canada; Asia: Raj (India/South Asia), Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaya, etc; Africa: Egypt, Nigeria, Sudan, Kenya, Gold Coast, etc.): no ability to run countries by themselves like the Dominions, eventually became part of the Commonwealth.
- Religion: Protestant Christianity (Anglican/Episcopalian/Church of England = all the same Protestant branch)
- Justification of Empire: “3 Cs”: commerce (free trade), Christianity (Protestants), civilization (“civilize” others).

* What is Canada’s independence story and what is its status today with the British Empire?
- Wanting more power to make their own decisions and fearing the US military after the Civil War, in 1867 Canada peacefully became a Dominion. Canada is still technically run by the British monarch.

France by 1914:
- Government: Democratic-Republic. No emperor/king since 1870.
- Empire: #2 largest empire (western Africa, Indochina).
- Feared rise of Germany. Wanted revenge from losing the Franco-Prussian War (1870-71).
- Religion: Catholic (freedom of religion by this era).
- Paris = #1 city for high culture (art, showbusiness, etc.).
- Justification of Empire: “Civilizing Mission”: spread Enlightenment ideals and “civilization” to colonies.

- Tried to assimilate natives into being “French” (did not go very well).
- France colonialism banned witch doctors, extend public health care (152 health posts by 1946), gave compulsory vaccinations.

Germany by 1914:
- Germany became a country in 1871, led by Prussia (northern Germany). Previously the Holy Roman Empire (ended 1806) and German Confederation (after 1815).
- Franco-Prussian War (1870-71): Prussia defeated France in war and this united other German-speaking people into agreeing to become a new country (“Germany”).
- Government: monarchy (Kaiser = king) who worked with the Reichstag (legislature).
- Geography/Empire: #3 largest overseas empire.
- War/foreign policy strategies: Weltpolitik = policy to build Germany into a world power. #1 army, aggressive foreign policy and military buildup. Kaiser Wilhelm II (r. 1888-1918) symbolized this. Huge buildup of the navy threated British dominance.
- Religion: mix of Protestant and Catholic Christians
- Economy: rising economy, huge industrial power, high standard of living, many modern welfare/government programs (good schools, worker rights, health care, etc.).

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Russia by 1914:
- Government: Monarchy (Autocracy = monarch who rules the country and all institutions). Tsar (a.k.a. “czar”) = ruler.
- Geography/Empire: #1 land-based empire. Expansionist. Near-constant war on frontiers. Expanded Eastward to Alaska.
- Religion: Orthodox Christianity
- Economy: huge wealth gap, lots of illiterate/poor peasants. Serfdom not abolished until 1861.
- “The Lag”: Russia was technologically and ideologically “behind” the West.
- Crimean War (1853-56): Russia loses to Ottoman Empire and other European countries, checking its expansion and ending the Holy Alliance (created after the French Revolution to stop the spread of its ideas)
- Russo-Japanese War (1904-05): Japan defeats Russia and shows the rise of Japan/decline of Russia.

Ottoman Empire by 1914:
- Government: Absolute monarchy (“Sultan” = leader).
- Geography/Empire: Middle East and North Africa, the last major Muslim empire. Lost Northern African and most European lands in 1800s/early 1900s. On the decline and behind Europeans (once called the “sick man of Europe”).
- Religion: Islam. Christians and Jews were tolerated and 2^nd class citizen (People of the Book).
- People: dominated by Turks (Turkish), lots of different ethnicities.
- Tanzimat Reforms (1839-1878): tried to modernize/Westernize the empire and promote Ottomanism (pride in empire for all ethnicities). It failed because of a conservative reaction to them (sultan Abdul Hamid II was a key figure).
- Crimean War (1854-56): put the Ottoman Empire in huge debt to the Europeans who were necessary allies to defeat Russia.
- Young Turk Movement (early 1900s): pro-West and rights, Turkish nationalism, against monarchy, took over Turkey in 1908, caused Armenian Genocide during WWI.

- Reasons for decline: failed to embrace science & industrialization, antiquated government, too decentralized, corruption.

USA by 1914:

- Government: Democratic-Republic.
- #1 in world for immigration. Began restricting certain immigrants (i.e. Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)).

- Slavery abolished after the US Civil War (1861-65) but a segregated society by race (Jim Crow laws, etc.) remained. Reservations for Native Americans (American Indian Wars ended by 1890),
- Foreign policy: Isolationists. Weak military by WWI.
- Government: Democratic-Republic.
- Christianity #1 religion (Protestants (many types) most common); freedom of religion
- Economy: #1 rising economy, huge industrial power. Against free trade until the 1890s (also in 1920s/30s). large poor/rich gap.
- Empire: Manifest Destiny (controversial idea that Americans had a divine right to settle the continent); Overseas “territories” included Hawaii (conquered 1893), Alaska (purchased from Russia 1867), Philippines (won in Spanish-American War (1898) and not independent until 1945).
- Some key movements in the early 1900s: Women’s Suffrage (1920), Prohibition (banning of alcohol) 1920-33, Civil Rights (not much success until 1950s/60s).

China by 1931:
- Government: Absolute Monarchy in Qing Dynasty (1644-1911); republic in Republic of China from 1911-1949.
- Century of Humiliation (1839-1949): China was never conquered but was forced to trade with/give foreigners privileges, lost many harmful conflicts.
- War/foreign policy strategies: isolationist. Forced to deal with foreign powers starting with the Opium Wars (1839-1860).
- Economy: not industrialized, far behind the West and Japan.
- Religion: three traditions: Buddhism, Daoism, Confucianism.

* Overall, what was China and Japan’s strategy during the age of Exploration/Colonialism (1400s-1800s)?
- They were isolationists (shunned foreigners) and did not benefit from the scientific and technological progress like the Europeans.

* Why was there pressure on Japan and China to open their borders by the mid-1800s?

- Western countries (especially Great Britain) saw it as harmful to business and wanted free trade.

* What is free trade, and what did its processor, mercantilism (1500s-1800s) mean (related to Opium Wars’ causes)?
- Mercantilism: economic policy to maximize exports and minimize imports (often with tariffs and other protectionist policies) to gain a favorable balance of trade (idea: try not to give other countries your money).
- Free trade: economic policy that allows business with other countries with no taxes (tariffs) or restrictions (idea: doing business helps everyone involved).

* What are the protectionist economic policies of tariffs, quotas, subsidies, and embargoes?
- Tariff = tax on imports (goods coming from a foreign country)
- Quota = certain capped/maximum amount allowed (i.e. the US can only import 10,000 Japanese cars per year)
- Subsidy = government pays businesses to keep them competitive (i.e. the government pays US rice farmers money so they can sell their rice for cheaper than Chinese rice and still make more money)
- Embargo = a ban on trade/commercial activity with another country

* What were some major events in China’s Century of Humiliation about (1839-1949)? Know the Opium War, Boxer Rebellion, 1911 Revolution, Chinese Civil War, World War II.
Opium Wars (1839-1860): Britain wanted tea, but the Chinese would only take silver as payment. Thus, Britain sold opium (an illegal drug) to obtain silver illegally. They then used this silver to buy tea. China declared war, and Britain easily won the war. Hong Kong was ceded to Britain and free trade (including opium) was forced on China.
Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864): deadly civil war about religion & civil unrest. It failed. Foreigners helped the Qing stop the Taipings.
First Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895): China lost a limited war with Japan, showing difference between the two countries.
Boxer Rebellion (1899-1901): a band of Chinese people (Boxers) wanted foreigners (which had many privileges in China) to leave. The movement failed after foreigners raised an army, and the Qing government accepted a harsh peace agreement.
1911 Revolution: China overthrew the government and became a republic after 4,000 years of monarchy.
World War I (1917-18): China fought with the Allies with the hopes that foreigners would leave after the war, but they didn’t.
Warlord Era (1910s-1920s): the new government (republic) was weak though the 1910s-20s. Anarchy reigned throughout China.
World War II (1931-1945): China eventually won a huge war against Japan but they suffered huge losses (2^nd most of any country).
Chinese Civil War (1927-1949): communists won a civil war and made China a communist country. This war was temporarily stopped due to the war with Japan in WWII. The KMT (Nationalists) lost and moved to Taiwan.

* What were some major causes of China’s Century of Humiliation (1839-1949)?

- Shunned industrialization/trade/innovation since 1400s; antiquated government.

Japan by 1914:
Eras: Edo Period = 1603-1868. Meiji Period = 1868-1912. Imperial Japan: 1868-1947.
- Government: Absolute Monarchy in Edo Period (ruled in practice by the Shogun (head samurai)). The emperor took back the country in the Meiji Era, and a limited legislature was put in place in the late 1800s.
- Samurai: military class of men were defeated in civil war in late 1800s and it ended.
- War/foreign policy strategies: isolationist until Meiji Era, afterwards they wanted an Asian empire conquered much of Asia.
- Economy: first non-Western country to become industrialized.
- Russo-Japanese War (1904-5): Japan won, controlled Korea as a result and proved its rise.
- Religion: State Shinto (used many old traditions and considered the Emperor to be divine) was emphasized.

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Success Criteria/Study Guide (units 7-10):

* What were the four main (MAIN) long-term causes of World War I?

- Militarism – to glorify and prepare for war
- Alliances – mutual agreement to support another country in times of war
- Imperialism – when a stronger country conquers and runs a foreign land; empire building.
- Nationalism – deep devotion to one’s nation, including feelings of superiority over others.

* How did militarism lead to World War I?

- Conscription = common so militaries were huge
- Jingoism = warlike foreign policy was encouraged
- Arms race = common between world powers (rise of Germany being a key)

* How did alliances impact World War I?

- This brought more countries/empires into WWI. The “Allies” fought the “Central Powers”.

* What were the sides in World War I?
- Central Powers (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, etc.)
- Allied Powers (France, Great Britain, Russia, USA, Serbia, Japan, China, Italy, etc.)

* What side of the war was the United States on and why was this important?
- The US entered the war in 1917 towards the end of the war and had a large say in the peace negotiations.

* How did imperialism lead to World War I?

- Industrialized countries needed raw materials because of the Industrial Revolution
- European powers ruled many colonies and needed strong militaries to rule them
- The competition for colonies in Africa and Asia led to empire rivalry.

* How did nationalism and self-determination lead to World War I?

- Many ethnic groups in empires wanted independent countries of their own (“self-determination”)
- Many felt their country/ethnic group was superior to foreigners
- Blind devotion caused people to trust dangerous leaders.

* What was the Balkan Peninsula (SE Europe) called “the powder keg of Europe” prior to WWI?

- Part of the country Austria-Hungary, the Balkans housed lots of different ethnicities, many of whom wanted independent countries.

* What was the short-term cause of World War I (in 1914)?

-The assassination of the Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary. Serbian nationalists wanted Serbia to be a country for Slavic people. Since there were lots of Slavs in Bosnia (A-H conquered it in 1908), the terrorist who killed the Archduke thought this action might scare A-H into giving up Bosnia.

* What “modern” weapons were used in WWI?
- Machine guns, artillery, tanks, airplanes, battleships, submarines, poisonous gases, land mines, zeppelins.

* What was trench warfare like?
- Two fortified trenches with “no man’s land” in the middle. Soldiers would rush “over the top” and try to conquer the enemy’s trench, often running straight into machine gun fire.

* Overall, was the Treaty of Versailles (treaty at the end of World War I) lenient, or harsh on the losers?
- Harsh. It was unlike the Congress of Vienna (peace agreement after the French Revolution) by comparison.

* What was the purpose of the League of Nations (2 things)?
- Being a forum where all countries could meet and talk about world problems
- Collective security: to end all future wars by the whole world attacking any “aggressor” country.

* Which three notable countries were not in the League of Nations when it started?
- Soviet Union (Russia surrendered early and no one trusted the communists), USA (Congress voted it down), Germany (lost the war).

* What was a common opinion about war after World War I? How did it relate to the League of Nations?

- People questioned the warfare in general and they were war weary and didn’t want to fight a huge war again.
- The League of Nations was formed to stop any future wars (collective security idea) and many people thought it would work.

* What government was mostly discarded after WWI?
- Monarchy (technically absolute monarchy. The Ottoman Empire, Russia, Austria-Hungary, Germany all lost monarchs).

* What happened to Austria-Hungary as a result of the Treaty of Versailles?
- It ended and dissolved into several smaller countries.

* What happened to Germany as a result of the Treaty of Versailles?
- It lost some borderlands and its entire overseas empire
- Forced to have only a very weak military
- Forbidden from joining the League of Nations
- Had to pay $$ reparations for the war
- Signed a document admitting the war was all Germany’s fault
- Became a republic (“Weimar Republic”).

* How did the Ottoman Empire become Turkey (Turkiye)?
- Lost WWI (called for a world jihad and it failed), lost all land outside “Turkey”, fought a civil war ending in 1922.

* How was Turkey (Turkiye) different than the Ottoman Empire when Mustafa Kemal took over?
- More secular (less conservative Islam), pro-European culture, banned fez hat, adopted Turkish alphabet (instead of Arabic script), “Father of Modern Turkey”, etc.

* What happened to the Ottoman Empire because of the Treaty of Versailles (ending World War I)?
- It ended. Much of its land was divided between England and France as “mandates”- basically colonies but slated to be independent later. What was left of the Ottoman Empire was renamed “Turkey” after a civil war.

* What freedoms/rights did the colonists win as a result from helping their mother countries in WWI? How did this relate to self-determination?
- Despite having lots of hope for more rights due to helping out, the colonists won nothing, and it led to more unrest. Self-determination clearly did not apply to everyone (colonists, minorities, immigrants, etc.).

* What does communism attempt to do (2 things)?
- Make a classless and as equal as possible society
- Abolish all private property.

* According to Marxist (communist) theory, what is the final class struggle before a worldwide revolution?
- It will be between workers and owners (proletariats vs. capitalists (or bourgeoisie)).

* Why wasn’t Russia considered an ideal place for the communist worldwide revolution to begin?
- Russia was not industrialized enough (not enough of a owners vs. workers class struggle).

* What are three reasons why communists do not like capitalism?
- Evil bosses in business that are motivated by greed (horrible worker rights, etc.)
- Overproduction (waste occurs in capitalism and this can be used more responsibly)

- Combinations (corporations buy out competition and it can lead to monopolies, etc.)

* What were the 3 major stages of the Russian Revolution (1917 -1922)?
- February Revolution: Nicholas II, the Tsar of Russia, stepped down from power. An unsuccessful provisional government began
- October Revolution: Bolsheviks (communists) took over Russia’s government. Lenin was their leader. Russia surrendered in WWI.
- Russian Civil War between Reds (communists) and Whites (anti-communists). The Reds won and renamed the country the Soviet Union (USSR).

* What were some services/policies that communist government promised…and how did they play out in reality?

- Free education…education greatly increased (almost 100% literate, prestigious universities), but communist ideology dominated
- Free health care…chronic shortages and long waits to get service
- 100% housing…achieved 0% homelessness, but some people had preferences of location/housing
- Food for all…attempted but lots of shortages and long lines. Famines were common in the communist world.
- Equality (no sexism, racism, etc.)…women achieved equal status but were still often expected to do housework.
- 100% employment…achieved 100% employment but worker rights were poor, communist economies performed poorly.

* What was Lenin’s “dictatorship of the proletariat” leadership style like?
- He argued that the communist movement and USSR needed elite leadership that had to be obeyed for everyone’s own good.

* What class of people had the highest standard of living in the USSR and why did this matter?

- High-ranking government officials (nomenklatura). This inequality arguably betrayed communist ideals about equality.

* What was the USSR’s Comintern about? Where was it ultimately most successful?

- Its goal was to help spread communism worldwide. It notably started the Chinese Communist Party.

* How successful was the early spread of communism (after the USSR formed)?
- Not successful to the early Soviets’ surprise. Eastern European countries rejected it. Western countries were alarmed by it and took steps to prevent its spread.

* In communist countries like the USSR, China, and North Korea, how was cult of personality like religion?

- Communist countries were officially atheist, but their leaders and communist ideology became the new “religion.”

* When Stalin took power, how had the idea of global revolution changed?

- It was not seen as possible yet; the best thing would be for the USSR to industrialize and become more powerful.

* What were Stalin’s Five-Year Plans about?

- Collectivize farms and industrialize USSR at any cost. Living standards went down but industrialization occurred.

* How did Stalin change agriculture in the USSR?

- Agriculture became a collective enterprise (“collectivization”). It was disastrous and millions died in famines, especially in Ukraine which many believe was deadlier since Stalin wanted to punish Ukraine (“Holodomor”).

* What were the USSR’s purges of the 1930s (and beyond) about under Stalin?

- Peaking in the 1930’s, 10s of millions of were arrested and killed for being traitors or enemies of the state. Many were innocent.

* What was the dual purpose of the Gulag system in the USSR?

- To work as a prison system as well as a forced labor system.

* What was socialist realism art about?

- It falsely showed how communism worked well. The art was common across the communist world.

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* What is the government of fascism like?

- Emphasis on order
- Loyalty to a leader

- Othering (“we” are better than “them”)
- Promises of good times ahead
- Nationalism
- Militarism.

* Which major countries were fascist prior by WWII? Which wanted to expand their territory?

- Italy, Germany, Spain, Portugal, Japan (arguably). Italy, Germany, and Japan were committed to expansion.

* What were the major things the Nazis believed in?

- A strong Germany with all German-speaking people in it
- The Fuhrer (leader/Hitler) is the unquestioned leader
- Lebensraum (“living space”) - Germany has the right to expand
- Jews and Communists were enemies (often seen as one in the same)
- Autarky (Germany should be economically self-sufficient)
- Social Darwinism (“Aryan” race = supreme race).

* How did the Nazis gain power in Germany (1933)?

- They were elected. Hitler then made every other party illegal and gave more power to himself.

* What did the Hitler and the Nazis do that won them more popularity in Germany?
- Stabilized the economy
- Decided not to follow the harsh WWI treaty commitments
- Built autobahn (freeway system)
- Held successful Olympics in 1936
- Restored sense of pride in Germans.

* What was Hitler Youth (boys) and League of German Girls (girls) about (and the Young Pioneers for the USSR/communist countries)? Were these programs successful?

- It was like a camp for the youth of Germany, and it was very successful as a propaganda tool. The YP were communism’s version.

* In order, how did the Nazis plan deal with the Jewish population (5 phases)?

- Antisemitic laws (anti-Jewish laws), Emigration (encouraged to leave), forced into ghettos, concentration camps, death camps (“Final Solution”).

* 12-13 million innocent people died in the Holocaust. What groups were specifically targeted?

- Jewish people (6 million), Communists, “Asocials” (outcasts), disabled, elderly, Soviet POWS and some Slavic people, homosexuals, criminals, Romani people (Gypsies), mentally ill, Jehovah’s Witnesses.

* Why did the Nazis hate Jewish people?

- They “stabbed Germany in the back” as spies and traitors which is why Germany lost WWI (scapegoated as traitors)
- They were greedy and responsible for Germany’s financial problems (scapegoated for the economy)
- They were racially inferior (they were Semitic, not Aryan)
- They were only 1% of Germany and were easy to pick on as a minority
- A false Russian document. “The Protocols of the Elders of Zion” claimed that Jews were controlling the world (banks, media, etc.)
- Long history of Christian hatred of Jews: blood libel, traitors (gave Jesus to Romans), scapegoat (easy to pick on as a minority), practiced usury (loans with interest) and were greedy bankers, pogroms (organized massacres).

* What were the short-term causes of World War II, both in Asia and Europe?

- Asia: Japan invaded China (first in 1931 (Manchuria), then in 1937). Europe: Germany invaded Poland (1939).

* What were 4 long-term causes of World War II?

- Conquest of new lands by fascist (i.e. Axis) countries, especially Nazi Germany and Imperial Japan.
- Bad economic times meant that many countries were not willing to fight (Great Depression (1929-1939) and less trade)
- Harsh WWI peace on Germany played a role in the rise of more extreme solutions (i.e. the Nazis)
- The failure of the League of Nations (3 reasons): countries like the USA and USSR were absent, countries were war-weary from WWI and hesitated upon attacking powerful countries, no actions for civil wars.

* What did the USSR and Stalin blame WWII on?

- Mostly on the economic system capitalism. It was seen through a communist lens.

* What were the sides of World War II?

- Axis Powers: Germany, Japan, Italy. Allied Powers: Great Britain, France, China, USSR (from 1941), USA (from 1941).

* What was the outcome of the Munich Conference?

- Western leaders decided on appeasement (try to make Hitler stop by letting him take Czechoslovakia). The idea is that he could take this but nothing more.

* What was the significance of the Non-Aggression Pact?

- The USSR and Nazi Germany agreed to not fight for 10 years, and secretly divided up Eastern Europe between themselves It terrified the democratic countries and many others.

* What was Germany’s WWII blitzkrieg strategy about? How effective was it?

- The German military strategy to use planes, tanks, and then infantry to make an overwhelming first strike. It was extremely effective at first and the Nazis conquered most of Europe (France surrendered in 6 weeks).

* In 1941, What countries were neutral at first but then joined the Allies after World War II progressed?

- USSR (Germany invaded it) and the USA (Japan bombed Hawaii).

* What were the Nazis’ hopes about their invasion of the Soviet Union (June 1941)?

- The Nazis were extremely confident that the Soviets would be conquered easily and quickly It failed.

* What made the US enter World War II (December 1941)?

- Japan bombed Pearl Harbor, Hawaii (US territory at the time). Germany declared war on the US days later (the Japanese and Germans made this deal previously). The US was now in the war.

* How did WWII in Asia (China vs. Japan = 90% of fighting) go?

- Japan won most battles and swept through most of Asia (including European colonies)
- China absorbed lots of death (huge population) but didn’t give up
- Chinese Civil War (between Communists and the ruling government) paused to focus on fighting Japan
- Japanese soldiers killed 6-7 million innocent Asians – violence was extreme (Rape of Nanking/Nanjing Massacre as an example)

* Why did the Japanese attack the USA (Pearl Harbor), 4 reasons?
- Thought it would scare the USA away from fighting in the war
- Need oil from Americans and thought this would scare them into giving it to them
- Wanted to take out navy in Pacific
- Secret agreement that the Nazis would declare war on the USA

* What was Executive Order #9066 (Japanese Internment) about, and why was the 442^nd regiment significant?

- #9066 forced 120,000 Japanese and Japanese-Americans into internment camps out of a fear of being with the enemy.
- The 442^nd regiment was a Japanese-American regiment and it was the most decorated regiment in the war.

* What was the significance of the D-Day Invasion (1944)?

- The largest sea invasion of all time, it opened a 2^nd front for the Allies (in France). It was a success and France was liberated.

* Why did the Americans drop two atom bombs on Japan (3 reasons)?

- To end the war quickly
- Avoid deaths/casualties invading Japan.
- Demonstrate advanced technology to enemies (especially USSR)

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* What were some of the key contributions of the allies in WWII (know basics)?
- Great Britain: broke Nazi code with computer, radar, air strikes on Germany, Churchill’s leadership
- USSR: highest human cost, leadership of Stalin
- USA: broke Japanese code, dropped two atomic bombs on Japan, top producer of war equipment, leadership of Roosevelt/Truman
- China: highest human cost in Asia, paused civil war to fight Japanese.

* What happened at the Nuremberg Trials? The Tokyo Trials (know basics)?

- Nuremberg Trials: Only one Nazi admitted guilt, most received harsh sentences and 11 were executed (hanging).
- Tokyo Trials: the Japanese Emperor allowed to live but many were found guilty and some were sentenced to death.

* WWII was the deadliest war in history. What were some important statistics of deaths/casualties (know basics)?
- Deaths: 70-85 million died (civilian deaths: 50-55 million). 405,399 Americans died (1.1 million casualties – most of any US war).
- USSR & China deaths: USSR had #1 death toll: 23 million (40x the deaths of the US or UK). China suffered 2^nd most (19 million).
- Holocaust deaths: 12 million died in the Holocaust (6 million Jewish people; roughly half their population).
- 7 million innocent Asians were killed by the Japanese.
- 2 million women were raped by USSR troops. 200,000 comfort women were raped/abused by the Japanese in sexual slavery.
- Atomic bomb deaths: 129,000 – 226,000 innocent Japanese people died from two atom bombs dropped by the USA.
- 120,000 Japanese and Japanese-Americans went to Internment Camps in USA.
- 7,000 suicides in Berlin, Germany in 1945.
- 50 million people were uprooted from their homes.

* What was the Cold War (1945-1991) about?

- A struggle between the democratic/capitalist/liberalism world vs. the communist world.

* What are the 3 purposes of the United Nations?
- Forum for different countries to communicate
- Foreign aid
- Collective security.

* Which countries are in the United Nations Security Council? Why?

- USA, UK, China, France, USSR (the powers that won WWII). Each can veto (stop) a collective military action.

* What was the post-WWII status of the USA, Great Britain/France, USSR, China, fascism, and colonists (know basics)?

- USA = won war and the new top world power, booming economy. Americans were mostly reluctant to be a world power.
- Great Britain/France = won war but no longer top world powers, many colonists wanted independence.
- USSR = won war but suffered greatly. Rivaled US in many ways and feared by democracy countries.
- China = won war against Japan, but their civil war resumed until 1949 and was in a desperate condition.
- Fascism = defeated and discarded. The remaining “Fascist” countries (and military dictatorships) did not have imperial ambitions.
- Colonists (mostly Africa and Asia) = many wanted independence, age of decolonization began.

* What was the Marshall Plan? Was it worth it?

- The US decided to give lots of money and support to non-communist countries that were desperate to rebuild after WWII. This greatly increased USA’s popularity and was a huge success. This is one of the few times in history that winning counties have helped losing countries rebuild.

* Why was the Berlin Wall built?

- To keep communist East Berliners (communist side) inside their part of the city, so they could not escape communism by going to the western side. The wall was embarrassing to the Soviets and to communism.

* What were NATO and the Warsaw Pact?

- The military alliance systems in the Cold War. NATO = US led, Warsaw Pact = USSR led. World War III threatened to be global.

* Based on “Domino Theory”, what was the US foreign policy of “containment” that lasted through most of the Cold War?

- The USA’s policy starting in the 1940s. The idea is to not let communism spread because it would spread to nearby countries.

* What was the role of espionage (spying) in the Cold War?

- Espionage was very competitive and intense. The Soviets had the KGB and the Americans had the CIA.

* What were the two major functions of the CIA?
- Espionage = spying to gather more information and spread influence (infiltrate jobs, propaganda, etc.).
- Covert actions = secretive (often illegal and sometimes violent) missions to influence events. Examples: Iran (1953), Guatemala (1954), Cuba’s Bay of Pigs (1961), Grenada (1983), etc.

* Overall, what advantages did the KGB and CIA have over each other?
- CIA = better technology (i.e. computers, satellites by 1980s). KGB = better human resources, less rules to follow.

* What were proxy wars and how did they relate to the Cold War?

- Proxy wars were wars that were not directly between the major powers (USA and USSR), but were supported and funded by each. These conflicts (Korea, Vietnam, etc.) dominated the Cold War and were more violent as a result.

* What was the Arms Race? What is MAD about?

- The Arms Race was a huge military race with the USA and USSR that included nuclear weapons build up. Mutual Assured Destruction – theory that it would be suicidal to attack your opponent due to a devastating retaliatory attack.

* What is the status of nuclear proliferation today?

- Since 1968, it was accepted global policy that no other countries should get nuclear weapons. The US and Russia have 90% of the world’s nuclear weapons today.

* What was the Space Race about?

- Competition between the USA and USSR in outer space technology to “prove” the superiority of their government system. USSR = first satellite, first person in space; USA = first person on moon.

* How were sports part of the Cold War (know two)?

- Whomever wins would “prove” the better system.
- Cheating occurred, especially in communist countries (steroids - #1 thing).
- Boycotts also became part of the Olympics at various times.

* What were the three “worlds” in the Cold War?

- First = democratic, wealthy, capitalist countries
- Second = communist countries
- Third = poor countries, many of which were becoming independent countries from their colonial mother country. Seen as a battleground between communist vs. liberalism ideology.

* What sort of place was communist China (led by Mao Zedong)?

- Like Stalin’s USSR, push for industrialization, huge communes (collective farms), Mao = cult of personality, “Mao suits” = clothes.

* What was the Great Leap Forward? Did it work?
- China’s strategy to industrialize and collectivize agriculture into communes. It failed horribly and a horrible famine broke out.

* What was the Cultural Revolution (1966-76)?
- A huge campaign to get rid of anything anti-communism and the Four Olds (habits, customs, habits, culture).
- Everyone had to have Mao’s Little Red Book and it replaced education.
- The “Red Guard” consisted of young people trying to “make revolution” by finding people against this idea.
- Many were sent to work in farms for “re-education”.
- It ended when Mao died. 400,000 – 1 million people died.

* Why were two reasons why the USSR and China were not closer allies?

- Egos of their leaders/the role of their country (both claimed to be #1)
- Ideological differences (China = peasants emphasized, USSR = industrial workers emphasized).

* What was Tiananmen Square (1989) about?

- Huge pro-democracy protests which failed, and hundreds died. The government forbids talk of it today.

* What is the status of communism in China today?

- China is now a market economy but the Chinese Communist Party is still in power. There is heavy criticism about their surveillance policies, spread of power in Asia, and lack of human rights.

* What are some current controversies in China? (Taiwan, Tibet, and Hong Kong, South China Sea, surveillance state)?
-Taiwan (disputed since end of Chinese Civil War in 1949. China still claims it as a renegade province and war is feared).
Tibet (conquered since 1950 and do not recognize the Dalai Lama).
Hong Kong (handed back to China in 1997 with a plan for 50 years of continued capitalism and free speech, but since protests erupted in 2020s China cracked down and took away their freedoms)
South China Sea (China has built artificial islands on it and claims airspace, fishing rights, etc.)
Surveillance state (China keeps very close track of its citizens and has a “Social Credit System”)
Uighur camps (largest internment re-education camps in the world today for smaller Muslim population in western China)

* Why is there a North and South Korea?
- After WWII, the Soviets influenced the northern half, making in communist. The southern half avoided communism.

* What was the Korean War (1950-53) about? What was the result?

- The North (communist) invaded the non-communist South to unify it. The United Nations, led by the United States, fought for the South and China fought for the North (USSR stayed out). After a stalemate, a cease fire was declared in 1953. It is ongoing.

* What were the three Indochina Wars about?
- 1^st Indochina War (1946-54): independence from France.
- 2^nd Indochina War (1955-75): defeated USA and North Vietnam (communist) unified with South Vietnam to create today’s Vietnam.
- 3^rd Indochina War (mostly late 1970s): mainly about taking out the Khmer Rouge in Cambodia

* What was the Vietnam War (1957-75) about? Who won?

- Containment (the US wanted to stop the spread of communism). North Vietnam was communist and South Vietnam was democratic. The Vietnamese recently defeated France in an independence war in the 1950s. The US became more and more involved in it. North Vietnam won and Vietnam became a united communist country. Although communism was a factor, the Vietnamese mostly wanted independence and the war remains controversial.

* What was the Khmer Rouge regime in Cambodia like (1975-1979)?
­- To make a peasant communist society, at least 25% of the people were killed in a genocide.

* Who was Mohandas Gandhi and some things he is known for?
- Using non-violent protest methods (later adopted by Martin Luther King, Jr.), Gandhi became the spiritual leader of India’s independence. He was assassinated.

* What was India’s independence (1947), Partition (1947), and Cold War experience like?

- Independence: After a long political struggle, independence from Britain was peaceful but hastily done.
- Partition of India: India split into Muslim (Pakistan) and Hindu India. 1 million died.
- Cold War: India tried to remain neutral in the Cold War, Pakistan was aligned with the United States. Bangladesh gained independence from Pakistan after a war in 1971.

* Other than the Holocaust, what were the genocides of the 1900s about (know 2):
- Armenian Genocide (1914-23): Ottomans killed 2 million Armenians who were seen to be on Russia’s side/traitors
- Holodomor (1932-33): Stalin made the famine in Ukraine far deadlier to punish their disloyalty
- Rape of Nanking/Nanjing Massacre (1937-38): Japanese soldiers killed around 250,000 people in Nanking, China
- Cambodian Genocide (1975-79): Regime killed 25% of population to make a peasant-based communist country
- Rwandan Genocide (1994): Hutus killed around 1 million Tutsis in a very short time
- Ethnic Cleansing in Bosnia (1995-96): Serbs kill 8,000 Muslims during Bosnian War

* What were the three “worlds” in the Cold War?

- First = democratic, wealthy, capitalist countries
- Second = communist countries
- Third = poor countries, many of which were becoming independent countries from their colonial mother country. Seen as a battleground between communist vs. liberalism ideology.

* What was the decolonization movement about?

- Colonies in Africa and Asia all wanted independence and their experiences varied greatly.

* What were 4 reasons why the decolonization movement happened?

- European powers could not afford or defend colonies
- People increasingly thought that colonialism/imperialism was unfair
- Nationalism and self-determination (colonists wanted countries of their own)
- US and USSR both opposed imperialism and wanted ideological allies.

* Overall, what was the Cold War situation in Latin America?

- Cuba was the only communist country, but there were many close calls and some civil wars. It was seen as a tense Cold War area.

* In general, who were “caudillos” in Latin American history, and what was their status in the Cold War?
- Strong, militaristic, sometimes corrupt, male “machismo” leaders were common in Latin American history. In the Cold War they enjoyed US support for being against communism.

* What was the Cuba’s independence like?
- Ruled by Spain for 400 years
- Cuba became independent after the US beat Spain in the Spanish-American War (1898).
- Although independent, the US had lots of business interests and Havana was a party town with lots of corruption.
- The Cuban Revolution (1959) started a new government, which quickly became communist.

* What was the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) about?

- The USSR moved nuclear weapons into Cuba and the US saw this as a direct threat. Both sides almost went to nuclear war. This was as close to WWIII as the world got.

* What were some highlights of the decolonization/Cold War experience of the following African countries:

Egypt: “independent” in 1922 but overseen by Britain until 1952. Suez Canal seized by Egypt (Suez Canal Crisis, 1956). France and Britain retaliated but the US commanded them to stop. Seen as humiliating for Europeans.

Algeria: violent independence war with France that was successful (Algerian War 1954-62). Terrorist tactics used.

Gold Coast (Ghana): first Sub-Saharan African independent country (peacefully from Britain). Failed pan-African campaign to unite Africa into a single country (leader was Kwame Nkrumah).

Congo (Zaire): independence from Belgium (1960), lots of poverty/corruption/war (i.e. Second Congo War (1990s-2000s).

Rhodesia (Zimbabwe): ruled by small white minority, Rhodesia declared independence from Britain in 1965 but was not recognized globally. Black majority won a civil war in 1980 renaming it Zimbabwe. Brutal regime followed (Robert Mugabe).

South Africa: British colony after defeating white Boers with Dutch heritage (1902). 1910 dominion status, 1931 commonwealth but (kicked out from 1960s-90s). Apartheid (1948-1994) was a segregation regime that divided blacks and whites and was very unpopular around the world.

* What was Israel (new country in 1948) like and why was it controversial?

- Formerly British Palestine, Israel became a homeland for Jewish people. Despite being approved by the United Nations, its creation was controversial. The Arabs in Palestine (“Palestinians”) disputed it and thousands had to move to allow Israelis to move in.

* Overall, what are four ongoing problems in the Middle East (SW Asia)?
- Islamism (a.k.a., radical Islam, jihadists)
- Shiites (led by Iran) vs. Sunnis (more complicated but mostly led by Saudi Arabia)
- Secular states vs. religious states

- Muslim world vs. Israel (thinks Israel never should have been created, hurts Palestinians’ rights)

* What happened in Iran in 1953, 1979, and the 1980s?
- 1953: US and British-led coup that ousted the Iranian Prime Minister to strengthen the Shah’s (king) rule. A loss of oil interests and spread of communism was feared if no action was taken.
- 1979: Iranian Revolution. Islamist (radical Islam) revolution that desired to usher in a new Islamic era. USA = #1 enemy.
- 1980s: Iran-Iraq War. Iraq tried to invade Iran. Ended in a tie with 1-2 million deaths. Half of Iraqis are Shiites (like Iranians).

* What are 3 things about US President Ronald Reagan’s policies in the 1980s?

- Reagan called the USSR an “evil empire” and turned up the pressure
- Lots of small interventions against communism around the world
- Increased military funding, including SDI (“Star Wars” defense).

* What was the USSR like by the 1980s?

- Low standard of living, loss of confidence in government, lots of corruption and misinformation.

* What is capitalism?
- When one makes a profit off an initial investment, and then re-invests the profit to grow the economy.

* What disadvantages of a command economy (economy of communist countries)?

- They have all failed in history
- Lack of economic freedom
- Lots of bureaucracy
- Quota system (required production goals) led to corruption and mismanagement
- No profit incentive (need/desire to earn money)
- No sense of ownership.
- Blat: system of favors was very common and led to corruption

* What did USSR General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev’s “glasnost” and “perestroika” mean (1985), and what was the result?

- Glasnost: “openness” (honestly in information and government)
- Perestroika: “restructuring” (the economy). Both led people wanting even more change.

* What 3 things happened when the Berlin Wall fell in 1989?

- Germany reunited in 1990
- Germany joined NATO
- The event spread through communist Eastern Europe and China and largely started the end of the Cold War.

* What was the fate of the Soviet Union when it ended in 1991?

- It dissolved into 15 countries. Lots of corruption followed in Russia and the economy suffered for the next decade.

* What is globalization?
- Trade and technology have made the world a more interconnected place.

* What invention/innovation in the 1990s has been compared to the printing press as a “gamechanger” in communications?
- The Internet.

* What is the Green Revolution?
- 20^th century farming innovations including fertilizers and mechanical harvesters that enabled food production to exceed population.

* What were the Three Waves of environmentalism?
- First Wave (c. 1900) = nature conservation (awareness of fragility of environment, first national parks, etc.).
- Second Wave (1960s-70s) = concern of resource exhaustion, population increase, grassroots activism
- Third Wave (late 20th century) = sustainable development.

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* What are the seven parts to the DBQ test (and know what each means)?
1. Contextualization: 2-4 sentences that describe the context/background of the prompt (tip: identify the correct era and connect it to the prompt)
2. Thesis: the answer to the prompt that frames the essay. There will be 2-3 subtopics (depending on how the documents are grouped). 1-2 sentences.
3. Describe: describe at least 3 documents. What is each document? Usually 1 sentence.
4. Support: support your thesis with at least 4 documents. Show how the document supports the thesis/topic sentence. Usually 1 sentence.
5. Source: For at least 2 documents, explain how it relates to any one of the following (historical context, audience, purpose, point of view). I highly recommend using audience (intended audience) or point of view (of the author). 1-2 sentences.
6. Outside evidence: add at least 1 piece of outside evidence in your essay that applies to your arguments. 1-2 sentences.
7. Complexity: lots of choices here but the easiest way is to support the thesis with all 7 documents, OR source 4 documents.

* What are the six parts to the LEQ test (and know what each means)?
1. Contextualization: 2-4 sentences that describe the context/background of the prompt (tip: identify the correct era and connect it to the prompt)
2. Thesis: the “answer” to the prompt that your body paragraphs will follow. Always 1-2 sentences.
3. Identify at least 2 or more relevant historical examples: specifically name them.
4. Support the thesis with at least 2 or more relevant historical examples. Explain them.
5. Historic reasoning (causation, change, comparison) used in your essay to answer the prompt. No need to do anything extra.
6. Complexity. Lots of ways to do this but the easiest way is to support your thesis with at least 4 relevant historical examples.