FINAL REVIEW

Chapter 15: Psychological Disorders

• The 4 D’s (deviance, distress, dysfunction, danger)
  • Deviance: A teenager in a small town frequently engages in vandalism, graffiti, and petty theft, behaviors considered deviant by the community norms.
  • Distress: A young adult experiences overwhelming anxiety and panic attacks whenever they are in crowded places, causing significant distress and avoidance of social situations.
  • Dysfunction: An individual struggles to maintain employment due to frequent mood swings, impulsive behaviors, and difficulty forming stable relationships, indicating dysfunction in their daily life functioning.
  • Danger: A person with untreated schizophrenia begins to exhibit paranoid delusions and starts hearing voices commanding them to harm themselves or others, posing a danger to themselves and those around them.
• DS5-5
  • Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
    • Used to diagnose mental health disorders in Canada
    • Categorical list of symptoms for over 200 mental disorders
• ICD-11
  • International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11)
  • Used by most countries to classify psychological disorders
  • Symptoms that undergo patterns
• Diagnosis
  • A clinician's determination that a person’s cluster of symptoms represents a particular disorder
• Comorbidity
  • The condition in which a person’s symptoms qualify them for two or more diagnoses
    • Ex. GAD + depression
• Models of abnormality
  • The perspectives that scientists use to explain phenomena are known as models, or paradigms
  • A psychologist utilizes the Cognitive-Behavioral Model to explain how an individual's negative thought patterns contribute to their anxiety disorder and teaches them coping strategies to challenge and change these thoughts.
• Neuroscience model
  • Abnormal behavior is an illness caused by a malfunctioning brain:
    • Genetics
    • Abnormal # of neurotransmitters
    • Viral infection
    • Hormones
    • Brain structure abnormalities
  • Does not take into account additional factors like environmental experiences
  • Researchers conduct brain imaging studies to investigate the neural mechanisms underlying schizophrenia, aiming to identify specific brain regions and neurotransmitter imbalances associated with the disorder.
• Cognitive-behavioral model
  • Disorders are the result of problematic learned behaviors and dysfunctional cognitive processes
  • A therapist helps a client with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder identify and challenge their irrational beliefs about germs, leading to a reduction in their compulsive handwashing behavior.
• Behavioral perspective
  • Abnormal behaviors are acquired by principles of learning (classical and operant conditioning)
  • A person with Specific Phobia of flying avoids air travel and experiences intense anxiety and panic symptoms when confronted with the prospect of boarding a plane, leading to significant impairment in their ability to travel long distances.
• Cognitive perspective
  • Abnormal functioning can result from several problems, including maladaptive beliefs and illogical processes
  • Selective perception: seeing only the negative features of an event
    • A person with Social Anxiety Disorder selectively focuses on negative aspects of social interactions, such as perceiving others' neutral expressions as disapproval, leading to increased anxiety and avoidance of social situations.
  • Magnification: exaggerating the importance of undesirable events
    • A student with Test Anxiety magnifies the consequences of failing an exam, imagining catastrophic outcomes such as academic failure, disappointment from family, and rejection by peers, intensifying their anxiety symptoms.
  • Overgeneralization: drawing broad negative conclusions on the basis of a single insignificant event
    • After experiencing rejection in a romantic relationship, an individual starts believing they are unlovable and unworthy of affection, leading them to generalize this belief to all future relationships and avoid forming new connections.
• Socio-cultural model
  • A society’s characteristics create stressors for some of its members
  • A sociologist explores how cultural factors such as societal expectations and family dynamics contribute to the development and manifestation of Eating Disorders among adolescents in different cultures.
• Developmental psychopathology model
  • This model studies how problem behaviors evolve as a function of a person's genes and early experiences and how these early issues affect the person at later life stages
  • A psychologist examines how early childhood trauma, such as abuse or neglect, increases the risk of developing Borderline Personality Disorder later in life.
• Equifinality
  • Different children can start from different points and wind up at the same outcome
  • Two individuals may develop social anxiety disorder through different pathways—one due to genetic predisposition and the other due to a traumatic event in adolescence—illustrating equifinality in the development of psychological disorders.
• Multifinality
  • Children can start from the same point and wind up at any number of different outcomes
  • Despite experiencing similar family dysfunction during childhood, one sibling develops Depression, while the other develops Substance Use Disorder, demonstrating multifinality in outcomes.
• Resilience
  • Ability to recover from or avoid serious effect of negative circumstances
  • Despite facing significant adversity such as poverty and exposure to violence, a child demonstrates resilience by excelling academically and forming healthy relationships with peers.
• Depression:
  • low, sad state in which people feel overwhelmed
• Major depressive disorder:
  • Disorder characterized by a depressed mood that is significantly disabling and is not caused by such factors as drugs or a general medical condition
  • Emotional - depressed mood
  • Motivational - loss of desire to do usual activities, lack of drive
  • Behavioral - less active and productive, may move and speak slowly or seem physically agitated
  • Cognitive - negative self-evaluation, self-blame, pessimism , guilt, indecisiveness, difficulty concentrating, thoughts of death or suicide
  • Physical - headaches, indigestion, constipation, dizzy spells, pain, sleep and eating disturbance, fatigue
  • Genetic predisposition
  • Low epinephrine and serotonin activity
  • High cortisol
• Mania
  • Euphoria or frenzied energy, associated with bipolar disorder
  • Emotional: powerful highs and lows
  • Motivational: may seek excitement and companionship
  • Behavioral: may move and speak quickly
  • Cognitive: poor judgment and planning, optimism, grandiosity
  • Physical: energetic, require little sleep
• Bipolar disorder
  • Periods of mania alternate with periods of depression
  • Gene abnormalities
  • Ion dysregulation and reduced sodium pump activity
  • Stress plus biological predisposition
  • Life events: striving, failures
• Learned helplessness (cognitive-behavioral theory)
  • People become depressed when they think they have no control over their life
  • Responsible for helpless state, they make themselves upset
  • Cognitive, emotional, behavioral effect
  • After repeatedly experiencing failures in school despite their efforts, a student develops a belief that they have no control over their academic performance, leading to feelings of helplessness and apathy.
  • Individual learns to feel and behave as if they have no control over their circumstances
• Attribution-helplessness theory (cognitive-behavioral theory)
  • A person who experiences a series of negative life events attributes their failures solely to internal factors, such as lack of intelligence, rather than external circumstances, leading to feelings of helplessness and low self-esteem.
  • Internal attribution: if someone fails a test and attributes it to their lack of intelligence or poor study habits, they are making an internal attribution.
  • Global attribution: if someone loses their job and attributes it to being "unlucky" in life overall, they are making a global attribution.
  • Stable attribution: if someone attributes their success in a particular sport to their natural talent or athletic abilities, they are making a stable attribution.
• Cognitive triad
  • A person with Depression consistently interprets negative life events as evidence of their own worthlessness, views the future as hopeless, and sees themselves as incapable of making positive changes, reflecting the negative cognitive triad.
  • Negative self thoughts
  • Negative thoughts about experiences
  • Negative thoughts about the future
• Anxiety disorders
  • Disabling levels of fear or anxiety that are frequent severe, persistent, or easily triggered
  • At least three of:
    • Restlessness
    • Fatigue
    • Keyed up
    • Difficulty concentrating
    • Muscle tension
    • Sleep problems
  • Intolerance of uncertainty: unwilling to accept negative events
  • Social Anxiety Disorder: people feel severe, persistent, and irrational fears of social of performance situations in which embarrassment may occur
  • Cognitive-behavioral theorists:
    • Unrealistically high social standards
    • View oneself as socially unattractive
    • View oneself as socially unskilled and inadequate
    • Expect negative consequences for clumsy behavior
    • Belief that one has no control over anxious feelings in social situations
• Phobias
  • Persistent, unreasonable fear of a specific object, activity, or situation
  • Explanations:
    • Avoidance behaviors are reinforced through operant conditioning
    • Modeling of fearful behavior
  • Most common: arachnophobia (spiders)
• Panic disorder
  • An anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent and unpredictable panic attacks that occur without apparent provocation
  • Panic Disorder with Agoraphobia: An individual with Panic Disorder avoids leaving their home due to fear of experiencing a panic attack in public places, leading to significant impairment in their daily functioning.
  • Malfunctioning brain circuit and excess norepinephrine
  • Misinterpretation of bodily sensations
• Obsessions
  • Persistent thoughts, ideas, impulses, or images that seem to invade a person’s consciousness
• Compulsions
  • Irrational repetitive and rigid behaviors or mental acts that people feel compelled to perform to prevent or reduce anxiety
• OCD
  • A mental disorder associated with repeated, abnormal, anxiety-provoking thoughts and/or repeated rigid behaviors
  • A person with Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder experiences intrusive thoughts about harming their loved ones and engages in compulsive rituals such as repeated hand washing to alleviate their anxiety.
  • Low serotonin activity
  • Overactive orbitofrontal cortex
  • Cingulate cortex and hypothalamus activate the OCD impulses
  • Amygdala drives the fear and anxiety components of the OCD response
• Schizophrenia
  • Disorganized thoughts, lack of contact with reality, and sometimes hallucinations
  • DSM-5: minimum of 2 symptoms appear continuously for one month and last for six months or more
  • Positive symptoms
    • Symptoms that seem to represent pathological excesses in behavior, including delusions, disorganized thinking and speech, hallucinations, and inappropriate affect
    • A person with schizophrenia experiences hallucinations, hearing voices commanding them to engage in harmful behaviors, and exhibits disorganized speech and behavior.
  • Psychosis
    • Loss of contact with reality
  • Delusions
    • Blatantly false beliefs that are firmly held despite evidence to the contrary
  • Loose associations or derailment
    • A common thought disorder of schizophrenia, characterized by rapid
  • shifts from one topic to another
  • Hallucinations
    • Imagined sights, sounds, or other sensory events experienced as if they were real
  • Inappropriate effect
    • Emotions that are unsuited to the situation
  • Negative symptoms
    • A person with schizophrenia displays flattened affect, social withdrawal, and lack of motivation, demonstrating negative symptoms of the disorder.
  • Catatonia
    • Extreme psychomotor symptoms of schizophrenia, including catatonic stupor, catatonic rigidity, and catatonic posturing
    • A person with Catatonic Schizophrenia exhibits extreme motor disturbances, such as maintaining rigid postures for extended periods or displaying purposeless, repetitive movements.
  • Cognitive symptoms
    • Memory
    • Executive function
    • Attention (short)
    • Working memory
    • Intelligence
  • Explanations
    • Genetic predisposition
    • Diathesis-stress model - biological predisposition plus negative event
    • Excessive dopamine activity
    • Enlarged ventricles, small temporal lobes and frontal lobes, and structural abnormalities of the hippocampus, amygdala, and thalamus
• Somatic symptom disorder
  • Symptoms cause distress and significant disruption in life
  • Excessive health-related anxiety
  • Concern has lasted over six months
  • A patient complains of persistent and distressing physical symptoms such as headaches and gastrointestinal issues despite medical evaluations showing no underlying medical cause, indicating Somatic Symptom Disorder.
• Conversion disorder
  • A person develops symptoms suggestive of neurological damage, such as paralysis, seizures, blindness, or loss of feeling
  • A person experiences sudden paralysis in their legs following a traumatic event, despite no physiological explanation for their symptoms, suggesting Conversion Disorder.
• Antisocial personality disorder
  • An inflexible pattern of inner experience and outward behavior that causes distress or difficulty with daily functioning
    • Disregards and violates the rights of others
    • Impulsive
    • Reckless
    • Self-centered
    • Linked to criminal behavior
  • A person consistently violates societal norms and disregards the rights of others, engaging in behaviors such as lying, manipulation, and criminal activities, indicative of Antisocial Personality Disorder.
• Borderline personality disorder
  • Severe instability in emotions and self-concept and high levels of volatility
  • Biosocial theory: child has difficulty identifying and controlling emotions, and the emotions are punished or disregarded
  • A person struggles with unstable relationships, intense mood swings, and a pattern of impulsivity, self-harm, and suicidal behavior, characteristic of Borderline Personality Disorder.

Chapter 13: Social Psychology

• Social cognition
  • A group of friends is discussing a recent political event, and each person interprets the event differently based on their personal beliefs and prior experiences.
• Attitudes
  • A person expresses a positive attitude toward recycling and actively participates in environmental conservation efforts, such as sorting their trash and using reusable products.
• ABC model of attitudes
  • Affective - how we feel
  • Behavioral - how we behave
  • Cognitive - what we believe
• Cognitive dissonance
  • A smoker who is aware of the health risks associated with smoking experiences cognitive dissonance when they continue to smoke despite their knowledge, leading them to rationalize their behavior or attempt to justify it.
• Self-perception theory
  • After completing a challenging project at work, an employee observes their own behavior of working late nights and deduces that they must be highly motivated and dedicated to their job.
• Attitude Specificity
  • A person holds a strong attitude against animal cruelty in cosmetics testing but feels less strongly about animal cruelty in other industries.
• Social Desirability
  • During a job interview, a candidate presents themselves in a highly favorable light, emphasizing their strengths and downplaying any weaknesses, in order to appear more socially desirable to the interviewer.
• Implicit attitude
  • Despite expressing support for gender equality, an individual demonstrates implicit biases by unconsciously associating certain genders with specific roles or traits.
• Central route processing
  • A consumer carefully evaluates the features and benefits of a new smartphone before making a purchase decision, focusing on detailed information such as technical specifications and user reviews.
• Peripheral route processing
  • A person decides to buy a certain brand of shampoo because they recognize the celebrity spokesperson in the advertisement, without considering the product's actual benefits or effectiveness.
• Foot in the door
  • a charity organization asks people to sign a petition for environmental conservation, and later follows up with a request for a donation, leveraging the principle that agreeing to a small request increases the likelihood of compliance with a larger request.
• Door in the face
  • A student initially asks their teacher for an extension on a project deadline, expecting a refusal, and then follows up with a smaller request for extra help, which the teacher is more likely to grant in comparison to the initial large request.
• Attributions
  • A person attributes their friend's success in getting a job promotion to their hard work and dedication (dispositional attribution) rather than acknowledging that external factors, such as favorable circumstances, may have also played a role (situational attribution).
• Dispositional attribution
  • When someone fails a test, their classmate assumes it's because they are lazy or unintelligent, attributing the cause of the failure to the individual's internal traits rather than considering external factors such as difficulty of the exam or lack of study resources.
• Situational attribution
  • A driver cuts off another car in traffic, but the other driver assumes they must be in a hurry or distracted, attributing the behavior to situational factors rather than assuming the driver is intentionally rude.
• Fundamental attribution error
  • A person attributes a stranger's rude behavior to their personality traits (e.g., they must be a rude person), while failing to consider situational factors that may have influenced their behavior (e.g., they may be having a bad day).
• Correspondence bias
  • A teacher assumes that a student who performs well in class must also be kind and considerate outside of class, attributing positive traits to the student based solely on their academic performance.
• Actor-observer effect
  • A student blames their poor performance on a difficult exam on the test being too hard (situational attribution), but when they observe another student struggling with the same exam, they attribute their classmate's poor performance to lack of effort or ability (dispositional attribution).
• Social role
  • A person assumes the role of a mentor in a volunteer program, guiding and supporting younger individuals in their personal and academic development.
• Conformity
  • A teenager starts wearing clothes similar to their peers and adopts their interests and behaviors in order to fit in with a particular social group.
• Additive task
  • In a group project, each member contributes their ideas separately, and the final outcome is a combination of all individual contributions.
• Conjunctive task
  • A group of hikers must reach the summit of a mountain together, and their success depends on the performance of the weakest member, requiring coordination and support from everyone.
• Disjunctive task
  • A team of researchers is tasked with solving a complex problem, and success depends on the discovery of a single effective solution, which can be contributed by any team member.
• Divisible task
  • A group of volunteers is assigned to clean up a park, and the task can be divided into smaller subtasks, allowing each member to work independently on a specific area.
• Social facilitation
  • A professional athlete performs better in a competition when surrounded by cheering fans, experiencing heightened arousal and motivation due to the presence of an audience.
• Evaluation Apprehension
  • A student feels anxious about speaking in front of their classmates during a presentation because they are concerned about being judged or evaluated negatively.
• Social loafing
  • In a group project, some members exert less effort because they believe their individual contributions will not be noticed or evaluated, leading to decreased overall group productivity.
• Group polarization
  • During a debate among classmates, participants' initial opinions on a controversial topic become more extreme after discussing the issue with like-minded peers, leading to a polarization of attitudes within the group.
• Groupthink
  • A team of decision-makers unanimously agrees on a course of action without thoroughly evaluating alternative options or considering potential risks, leading to flawed decision-making and negative outcomes.
• Altruism
  • A bystander intervenes to help a stranger who has fallen on a busy street, despite facing potential risks or inconvenience to themselves, demonstrating selfless concern for the well-being of others.
• Egoistic helping behavior
  • A person volunteers at a local charity not out of genuine concern for others but to boost their own social status or reputation in the community.

Chapter 12: Personality

• Conscious
  • Sarah is aware that she is feeling nervous before her job interview. She acknowledges her anxiety and tries to calm herself down by taking deep breaths.
• Preconscious
  • Jack is unable to recall the name of his childhood friend when asked casually. However, after a moment of thought, he remembers it suddenly.
• Unconscious
  • Mark has recurring dreams about falling from a great height, but he doesn't understand why. He's unaware that these dreams stem from unresolved childhood trauma.
• Id
  • After a long day at work, Alex indulges in binge-watching his favorite TV show, eating junk food, and ignoring all his responsibilities.
• Ego
  • Despite feeling angry at his boss for criticizing his work, Tom maintains a calm demeanor and tries to address the feedback constructively.
• Superego
  • Even though Lisa is tempted to cheat on her exam, her strong moral values prevent her from doing so, as she knows it's unethical.
• Psychosocial stages
  • At 60 years old, Sarah reflects on her life and feels a sense of fulfillment, having successfully navigated through Erikson's stages and achieved a sense of integrity.
  • Oral stage
    • Jason has a habit of nail-biting and smoking, behaviors that could be traced back to unresolved conflicts during his oral stage of development.
  • Anal stage
    • Emily is extremely organized and meticulous about cleanliness, which could be attributed to her experiences during the anal stage of development.
  • Phallic stage
    • Mark experiences intense feelings of jealousy and rivalry towards his father, especially when his father pays attention to his younger sibling.
    • Oedipus complex
      • John feels a strong emotional attachment to his mother and experiences feelings of rivalry and hostility towards his father, especially during adolescence.
    • Electra complex
    • Sarah develops romantic feelings for her father and experiences jealousy towards her mother, wishing to possess her father's attention exclusively.
  • Latency stage
    • During the latency stage, Tim focuses on developing social and cognitive skills, such as forming friendships and excelling academically, rather than sexual desires.
  • Genital stage
    • Lisa experiences a strong desire for romantic relationships and seeks intimacy and companionship, indicating successful resolution of earlier stages.
• Defense mechanisms
  • After getting rejected by his crush, Mike convinces himself that he never really liked her in the first place to protect himself from the pain of rejection (denial).
  • Repression
    • Despite experiencing a traumatic event in his childhood, Alex has no memory of it as his mind has pushed the memories deep into his unconscious.
  • Denial
    • Despite being diagnosed with a terminal illness, Sarah refuses to believe the diagnosis and insists that the doctors are mistaken.
  • Rationalization
    • After failing an exam, Tom convinces himself that the test was unfair and that the questions were too difficult, rather than accepting responsibility for not studying enough.
  • Reaction formation
    • Despite feeling deep resentment towards his coworker, John goes out of his way to be overly friendly and helpful towards him.
  • Projection
    • Sarah accuses her partner of being unfaithful, even though she is the one who has been having thoughts of infidelity.
  • Displacement
    • After getting into an argument with his boss, Mike comes home and takes out his frustration by yelling at his family.
  • Sublimation
    • Instead of resorting to violence when he's angry, Jack channels his aggression into playing intense sports like rugby.
  • Regression
    • After the birth of his new sibling, Tim starts wetting the bed again, a behavior he had grown out of years ago.
  • Identification
    • Sarah idolizes her older sister and mimics her behavior, dressing like her, and adopting similar interests.
  • Intellectualization
    • After the death of her pet, Emily focuses on researching the stages of grief and analyzing her emotions rather than directly confronting her sadness.
• Alfred Adler
  • Mark believes that individuals are primarily motivated by their desire to overcome feelings of inferiority and achieve superiority, as proposed by Adler's theory of individual psychology.
• Carl Jung
  • Lisa explores the concept of the collective unconscious and archetypes in her therapy sessions, drawing inspiration from Jung's analytical psychology
    • Unconditional Positive Regard
      • During therapy sessions, Sarah's therapist demonstrates unconditional positive regard by accepting her without judgment, fostering a safe space for Sarah to explore her emotions.
    • Client-centered Therapy
      • Jack seeks therapy that focuses on his personal growth and self-awareness, where the therapist provides empathetic understanding and unconditional positive regard.
• Abraham Maslow
  • Tom develops a hierarchy of needs model to understand human motivation, emphasizing the importance of self-actualization and personal growth.
• Carl Rogers
  • Emily practices client-centered therapy, providing her clients with unconditional positive regard and creating a supportive environment for self-exploration and personal growth.
• Self-concept
  • Despite receiving criticism from others, Mike maintains a positive self-concept, believing in his abilities and strengths.
• Lexical hypothesis
  • Tom conducts research using the lexical hypothesis, exploring personality traits by analyzing language and descriptors used to describe individuals.
• Factor analysis
  • Emily uses factor analysis to identify underlying factors that contribute to personality traits, helping her understand the structure of personality.
• Superfactor
  • Sarah discovers a superfactor in her research, indicating a broad underlying dimension that influences multiple personality traits simultaneously.
• Five-factor model
  • Mark examines personality using the five-factor model, which includes traits such as openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism.
• Situationism
  • Despite exhibiting shy and introverted behavior in social situations, Lisa behaves confidently and assertively in leadership roles, demonstrating the influence of situational factors on behavior.
• Interactionism
  • John believes that both internal dispositions and external situations interact to influence behavior and personality development.
• Phrenology
  • Despite its discredited status, Tim becomes interested in phrenology and examines bumps on people's heads to determine personality traits.
• Social role theory
  • Emily explores how societal expectations and roles influence behavior and gender differences, drawing upon social role theory in her research.
• Gilligan’s research
  • Sarah examines gender differences in moral development, drawing upon Gilligan's research on the different ethical perspectives of men and women.
• Hyde’s research
  • Mark investigates the prevalence of dissociative identity disorder, drawing upon Hyde's research on the dissociative identity phenomenon.

Chapter 11: Motivation and Emotion

• Motivation
  • After receiving praise for his hard work on a project, John feels motivated to continue putting in effort and achieving success in his work.
• Motive
  • Lisa's motive for going to the gym is to improve her physical health and maintain an active lifestyle.
• Instinct theory
  • Sarah believes that human behavior, such as a mother's instinct to protect her child, is primarily driven by innate biological instincts.
• Drive reduction theory
  • Mark feels thirsty, so he drinks a glass of water to reduce his physiological drive and satisfy his thirst.
• Yerkes-dodson law
  • Emily knows that moderate levels of arousal are optimal for performance, so she ensures she's neither too relaxed nor too stressed when preparing for an exam.
• Incentive theory
  • Tom is motivated to study hard for his exams because he knows that good grades will earn him praise from his parents and possibly a reward.
  • Primary Incentives: Emily is motivated to eat because she feels hunger, a primary incentive necessary for survival.
  • Secondary Incentives: John is motivated to work overtime because he knows he'll receive extra money, a secondary incentive.
• Intrinsic motivation
  • Despite not receiving any external rewards, Jack finds joy and satisfaction in playing the piano simply because he loves music.
• Extrinsic motivation
  • Despite not enjoying his job, Mike continues to work hard because he receives a bonus for meeting his sales targets.
• Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
  • Lisa feels motivated to find a stable job and financial security (belongingness and esteem needs) before pursuing her creative passions (self-actualization).
• Biological motivations
  • Mark's desire to eat when hungry, sleep when tired, and seek shelter when cold are all examples of biological motivations.
• Conscious motivations
  • Sarah is consciously motivated to exercise regularly to improve her physical fitness and overall health.
• Unconscious motivations
  • Despite not being aware of it, Tom's fear of failure may unconsciously drive him to procrastinate on important tasks.
• Hedonic principle
  • Emily chooses to watch a comedy show rather than a documentary because she seeks pleasure and avoids discomfort, adhering to the hedonic principle.
• Avoidance motivation
  • Mike avoids confronting his boss about a problem because he fears negative consequences, such as getting fired or receiving criticism.
• Approach motivation
  • Despite the challenges, John is excited to start a new business because he is motivated by the potential for success and personal fulfillment.
• Loss aversion
  • Lisa feels a stronger emotional response to the thought of losing $100 than to the thought of gaining $100, demonstrating loss aversion.
• Hikikomori
  • Mark withdraws from social interactions and spends most of his time alone in his room, a behavior characteristic of hikikomori.
• Amotivation
  • Despite his natural talent for painting, Tom lacks the drive or interest to pursue it further, demonstrating amotivation.
• Growth mindset
  • Emily believes that her abilities and intelligence can be developed through hard work and dedication, embracing a growth mindset.
• Fixed mindset
  • Despite receiving constructive criticism, John believes that his intelligence and abilities are fixed and cannot be improved, reflecting a fixed mindset.
• Grit
  • Despite facing numerous setbacks, setbacks, Lisa persists in pursuing her goals with passion and perseverance, demonstrating grit.
• Affiliation
  • Sarah seeks out social interactions and forms close relationships because she has a strong need for affiliation and connection with others.
• Self-determination theory
  • Tom is motivated to pursue activities that fulfill his need for autonomy, competence, and relatedness, as outlined in self-determination theory.
• Emotion
  • Mark experiences a complex interplay of physiological arousal, subjective feelings, expressive behaviors, and cognitive interpretations when he receives unexpected good news.
• 4 components of emotion
  • Physiological
    • Changes in bodily arousal
  • Cognitive, feeling
    • Subjective appraisal and interpretation of one’s feelings and environment
  • Physical, behavioral
    • Expression of the emotion verbally and nonverbally
  • Emotional, behavioral
    • Keeping the emotion present (happiness) or removing it (sadness)
• Emotional-behavioral component
  • Sarah's feelings of anger lead her to yell and argue with her friend during a disagreement.
• James-Lange theory
  • Tom believes that he feels afraid because he's trembling and sweating, interpreting his physiological responses as the cause of his emotions.
• Cannon-Bard theory
  • Emily experiences fear and physiological arousal simultaneously when she encounters a threatening situation, suggesting that emotions and physiological responses occur independently but simultaneously.
• Two-factor theory
  • Despite feeling nervous before giving a presentation, John interprets his physiological arousal as excitement rather than anxiety due to the positive context of the event.
• Physiological arousal
  • Lisa experiences increased heart rate and sweating when she encounters a threatening situation, signaling physiological arousal associated with fear.
• Cognitive Appraisal
  • Mike interprets a racing heart and sweaty palms as signs of excitement rather than fear because he perceives the situation as challenging but manageable.
• Facial-feedback theory
  • Sarah forces herself to smile during a stressful situation, which actually reduces her feelings of anxiety and stress, supporting the facial-feedback theory.

Chapter 4: Human Development

• Cross-sectional design
  • Researchers compare the problem-solving abilities of children at different age groups to understand how cognitive skills develop over time.
• Longitudinal design
  • A group of individuals is followed and assessed over several years to examine changes in their cognitive abilities from childhood to adulthood.
• Nature \Nurture
  • Lisa wonders whether her love for music is inherited from her parents (nature) or developed through exposure and experiences (nurture).
• Critical periods
  • Emily learns that language acquisition is most successful during early childhood, emphasizing the importance of critical periods in development.
• Information processing theory
  • Tom compares the human mind to a computer, analyzing how sensory input is encoded, stored, and retrieved to understand cognitive processes.
• Theory of mind
  • Despite being told a white lie, Sarah understands that her friend told it to spare her feelings, demonstrating her ability to understand others' perspectives.
• Lev Vygotsky and the role of socia-cultural theory
  • John believes that children's cognitive development is heavily influenced by their social interactions and cultural context, in line with Vygotsky's socio-cultural theory.
• Piaget’s theory
  • Mark observes his niece repeatedly dropping toys from her highchair and realizes she is exploring the concept of object permanence, consistent with Piaget's theory of cognitive development.
  • Scheme
    • Lisa's mental framework for understanding the concept of a "dog" includes characteristics such as four legs, fur, and barking, representing her schema for dogs.
  • Assimilation:
    • Despite encountering a new breed of dog, Emily categorizes it as a "dog" based on her existing schema for dogs, demonstrating assimilation.
  • Accommodation:
    • When confronted with a cat, which shares similarities with dogs but also has distinct differences, Sarah modifies her schema to accommodate this new information.
  • Equilibrium:
    • Tom experiences cognitive discomfort when encountering new information that contradicts his existing beliefs, prompting him to seek balance and adjust his understanding.
• Sensorimotor stage
  • Mark's baby sister enjoys playing peek-a-boo, indicating her understanding of object permanence and her stage of cognitive development according to Piaget's theory.
  • Object permanence
    • Despite not being able to see her favorite toy, Emily knows it still exists and searches for it, demonstrating her understanding of object permanence.
• Preoperational stage
  • John's younger brother believes that a taller glass contains more liquid, demonstrating his thinking characteristic of the preoperational stage.
  • Egocentrism
    • Lisa struggles to understand that others may have different perspectives from her own, a hallmark of egocentrism in the preoperational stage.
  • Conservation
    • Despite pouring water from a tall glass into a short, wide glass, Sarah understands that the amount of water remains the same, demonstrating conservation.
• Concrete operational stage
  • Emily understands the concept of conservation and can perform simple logical operations, such as addition and subtraction, characteristic of the concrete operational stage.
  • Operations
    • Tom can mentally manipulate objects and perform logical operations, such as reversibility and conservation, indicative of the concrete operational stage.
• Formal operational stage
  • Despite never having encountered a certain mathematical problem before, John is able to solve it by systematically applying abstract reasoning and logic.
• Scaffolding
  • Lisa's teacher provides her with guidance and support as she learns a new concept, gradually reducing assistance as Lisa's understanding improves.
• Zone of proximal development
  • Emily's teacher assigns her tasks that are slightly beyond her current abilities but achievable with guidance, maximizing her learning potential.
• Temperament
  • Mark's baby sister is naturally cheerful and adaptable, exhibiting a temperament characterized by positivity and flexibility.
  • Easy
    • Sarah's baby sleeps through the night, adapts easily to new situations, and generally has a positive mood, exhibiting an "easy" temperament.
  • Difficult
    • John's baby cries frequently, has irregular sleep patterns, and is slow to adapt to changes, demonstrating a "difficult" temperament.
  • Slow to warm up
    • Despite initially being hesitant in new situations, Tom's baby gradually becomes more comfortable and eventually warms up to new experiences, exhibiting a "slow to warm up" temperament.
  • Unique
    • Emily's baby has a temperament that doesn't fit neatly into any established category, exhibiting a combination of traits that make them unique.
• Attachment
  • Mark's baby sister shows distress when separated from her mother but quickly calms down when reunited, demonstrating a secure attachment.
• Strange situation test
  • Lisa observes her baby's behavior in a controlled environment where they are briefly separated from and reunited with their caregiver, assessing their attachment style.
  • Secure
    • Mark's baby sister feels confident exploring the playroom knowing that her mother is nearby. When her mother leaves briefly, she shows mild distress but is easily comforted upon her return. She seeks proximity to her mother for reassurance before resuming play.
  • Anxious/avoidant
    • Lisa's baby shows little distress when separated from her caregiver and ignores her upon return. Despite outwardly appearing independent, she may suppress her need for closeness due to past experiences of unresponsiveness or rejection.
  • Anxious/ambivalent/resistant
    • Sarah's baby becomes extremely distressed when her caregiver leaves the room and is inconsolable upon their return. Despite wanting closeness and reassurance, she may also display anger or resistance towards her caregiver, unsure of their availability and responsiveness.
  • Disorganized/disoriented
    • John's baby shows contradictory behaviors, such as freezing in place or approaching and then abruptly avoiding their caregiver. Their responses seem disorganized and lack a consistent strategy for dealing with stress, suggesting confusion or fear in the caregiver's presence. This may result from experiences of unpredictable or frightening caregiving interactions.
• Authoritative parenting
  • John sets clear rules and expectations for his children but is also warm and responsive, promoting independence and self-regulation.
• Authoritarian parenting
  • Emily's parents are strict and enforce rigid rules without explanation, leading to obedience but potentially hindering her autonomy and self-expression.
• Permissive parenting
  • Tom's parents are lenient and indulgent, rarely enforcing rules or consequences, which may lead to a lack of self-discipline and boundaries.
• Uninvolved parenting
  • Sarah's parents are emotionally detached and uninvolved in her life, providing little guidance or support, which can lead to feelings of neglect and insecurity.
• Reciprocal socialization
  • John and his daughter engage in a two-way exchange of influence, with both parties shaping each other's behaviors and attitudes over time.
• Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral development
  • Emily considers whether an action is right or wrong based on societal rules and consequences, indicative of the conventional stage of moral development.
  • Preconventional
    • Mark believes that rules should be followed to avoid punishment and gain rewards, reflecting the preconventional stage of moral development.
  • Conventional
    • Sarah follows societal norms and rules because she believes it's important to maintain social order and gain approval from others, indicative of the conventional stage of moral development.
  • Postconventional
    • Despite societal disapproval, Tom speaks out against injustice because he believes in universal ethical principles and personal conscience, demonstrating the postconventional stage of moral development.
• Differentiation vs role preoccupation
  • Lisa struggles to balance her roles as a student, daughter, and friend, experiencing conflicts between different aspects of her identity.
• Body transcendence vs body preoccupation
  • Emily focuses on her physical abilities and what her body can achieve rather than fixating on appearance or societal beauty standards, demonstrating body transcendence.
• Ego transcendence vs ego preoccupation
  • Despite facing criticism, John maintains a sense of humility and focuses on the greater good rather than seeking personal validation, demonstrating ego transcendence.