FALLACIES: Methods of Philosophizing

• LOGIC

  • Branch of philosophy that focuses on the analysis of arguments

  • Studies and elaborates on good argumentation.

  • Study of correct thinking and reasoning

• FALLACY

  • Group of statements that appear to be arguments, but fail to support the conclusion.

    (e.g.: There is no hope in the Philippine government because the Philippines is a tropical country.)

1. Argumentum ad Hominem (“Attacking the Person”)

   • Hominem came from the Latin word “homo” which means man.

   • This fallacy literally means hitting the person below the belt instead of focusing on the issue at hand. Attacking the person presenting the argument instead of the argument itself.

     EXAMPLES:

     • “How can we believe him when he talks about social distancing, he is a lawyer who is a liar.”

     • “Of course, he believes that the government is flawed, he is a rebel and a Communist!”

2. Argumentum ad Baculum (Appeal to Force)

   • Baculum is a Latin word which means scepter or stick.

   • A scepter is a symbol of authority. Normally it is the Pope who carries it in his hands. This is committed when a person uses threat or force to advance an argument.

   • Using the threat of force or an undesirable event to advance an argument.

     EXAMPLES:

     • “TV Patrol is the best news program on TV. If you don’t believe me, I won’t let you watch the TV.”

     • “If this peace agreement will not be signed by the government, then we will have no recourse but to go to war.”

3. Argumentum ad misericordiam (Appeal to Pity)

   • Misericordia came from the Latin word Misericordia which means pity or compassion.

   • A person uses emotion such as pity to convince someone using emotions such as pity or sympathy.

     EXAMPLES:

     • “Forgive me, officer, there are a lot of boarders in this apartment including myself. Only the owner was issued a quarantine pass. We don’t have food we can’t give our ATM to the owner.

       That’s why I went out. So I did not violate the Bayanihan act Heal as One.

     • “All these charges are baseless; this is just plain harassment- can’t you see how this affects my family?”

4. Argumentum ad Populum (“Appeal to people”/ Bandwagon fallacy)

   • Populum is the Latin word for people.

   • Most TV commercials are guilty of this argument which exploits people’s vanity, desires, etc. The idea is presented as acceptable because a lot of people accept it.

     EXAMPLES:

     • “I’m sure you want to have an iPhone. Almost 80% of your schoolmates are using it.”

     • “Every boy at your age already has a girlfriend, you should go find one!”

5. Argumentum ad Tradition/ Antiquitatem (Appeal to Tradition)

   • Traditio means tradition.

   • Advancing an idea since it has been practiced for a long time.

   • The idea is acceptable because it has been true for a long time. “This is the way it has always been done”.

     EXAMPLES:

     • “All of us in the family, from our ancestors up to now, are devout Catholics, so it is only right that you will be baptized as a Catholic.“

     • “Marriage should be between a man and a woman. It has been so for a long time in this country; it should remain so today and in the future.”

6. Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (Appeal to Ignorance)

   • Ignorantiam is a Latin word for ignorance.

   • Whatever has been proven false must be true and vice versa.

   • Committed when a person could not give a counterargument or if he/she could not present any evidence or witnesses to prove or disprove the statement of another, his/ her assertions are correct and the opponent is wrong.

     EXAMPLES:

     • “According to Zecharia Sitchin, the author of the book Cosmic Code, Adam was the first test tube baby. Since nobody proves otherwise, therefore it is true.”

     • “I am sure that the students have understood the instructions perfectly well because no one raised a hand to ask anything of them.”

7. Petitio Principii (Begging the Question)

   • A fallacy in which a conclusion is taken for granted in the premise.

   • Assuming the thing or idea to be proven is true. Also known as “circular argument”

     EXAMPLES:

     • “I have the right to free speech, therefore you cannot stop me from talking.”

     • “What is a declarative sentence? It is a sentence that declares.”

     • “Cheating is wrong because it is immoral”

8. Hasty Generalization

   • This fallacy is committed when one reaches a generalization based on insufficient evidence.

     EXAMPLES:

     • “Our neighbor who is a police officer was convicted of being a drug dealer, therefore, all police officers are drug dealers. “

9. Cause-and-effect

   • Assuming that the effect is related to a cause because both events occur one after the other.

   • Assuming a “cause-and-effect relationship between unrelated events.

     EXAMPLES:

     • “Ever since you bought that sweater, everything has been going wrong in your life. You should get rid of it.”

     • “Jen comes to class just as the bell rings every day. Jen’s arrival at class causes the bell to ring.”

     • “She became an old maid because she used to sing while cooking.”

10. Fallacy of Composition

    • Infers that something is true of a part, is true of a whole.

    • Assuming that what is true of a part is true for the whole.

    • Individual to all

      EXAMPLES:

      • “You are a doctor, therefore you came from a family of doctors.”

      • “These cases of robbery in this district have convinced me that the city has become a den of thieves and criminals”

11. Fallacy of Division

    • Infers that something is true of the whole, must also be true on its parts.

    • Assuming that what is true for the whole is true for its parts.

    • All to individual

      EXAMPLES:

      • “Your family is smart, therefore you are smart.”

      • “You come from a family of doctors and intellectuals! Surely you can do better in this course!”

12. Fallacy of Equivocation

    • Using the same term in a different situation with a different meaning.

    • Calling two different things by the same name.

    • Resulting from the use of a particular word/ expression in multiple senses throughout an agreement leading to a false conclusion.

      EXAMPLES:

      • “Humans walk by their legs. The table has legs. Therefore the table walks by its legs.”

      • “A ruler measures 12 inches, Mayor Isko Moreno is a ruler; therefore, Mayor Isko is 12 inches.”

13. Fallacy of Accident

    • Occurs when one attempts to apply a general rule to an irrelevant situation.

      EXAMPLES:

      • Cutting people with knives is a crime.

        Surgeons cut people with knives.

        Surgeons are criminals.

14. Argumentum ad Verecundiam (Argument from Authority)

    • Committed when a person uses a name of a popular celebrity or name of an expert to put more weight in the assertion being made.

      EXAMPLES:

      • “My assignment in Philosophy is not wrong. Ms. Aguirre, my English Academic teacher who is known internationally as a novelist, confirmed my answer.”

15. False Dichotomy

    • Seen in the dilemma of the two main political families in the Philippines: the Aquinos and the Marcoses.

    • This is not to differentiate the two but to present the third most often used fallacy: the false dichotomy.

    • The false dichotomy is when you’re asked to take sides on only two objects but you really have other options to choose from.

    • Doesn’t accept the concept of neutrality, but rather adopts the concept of binary.

      EXAMPLES:

      • The dichotomy of Marcos vs Aquino’s family

16. Red Herring

    • When a person talks about oranges, rebuts it, however in the form of supporting the bananas.

    • Diverting the topic and making an argument for it

      EXAMPLES:

      • “#NeverAgain!” “Eh kumusta naman ang Hacienda Luisita?”