1. The Birthplace of Humanity

• Origins of Humanity in Africa

  • Paleoanthropologists believe that the origins of humanity lie in the savanna regions of Africa.

  • Current models suggest that humans emerged from Africa around 200,000 years ago and began migrating to the rest of the world about 100,000 years ago.

• Transition to Agriculture

  • Both ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia experienced a transition from hunting and gathering to agriculture.

  • This transformation led to settled village life, which allowed for increased hierarchy and socialization.

  • It is unclear whether the ancient Egyptians originated from the African savannas or from Mesopotamia, or both.

2. Egyptians and Race

• Debate Over Egyptian Race

  • The debate over the race of ancient Egyptians began in the 19th century

  • African Americans and white reformers sought to refute claims by racist pseudoscientists that people of African descent were inherently inferior

  • Ancient Egyptians were often cited as examples of a civilization created by people of African descent

  • A more scholarly debate occurred between afrocentricists and traditionalists in the last two decades of the 20th century

  • Afrocentricists believed that ancient Egypt was a black civilization closely linked to other indigenous African civilizations

  • Traditionalists argued that modern racial categories have no relevance to ancient Egypt

• Egypt's Contributions

  • Both afrocentricists and traditionalists agree that Egypt made immense contributions to the region in areas such as religion, art, and commerce

3. Egyptian Civilization

• The Gift of the Nile

  • Egypt's civilization was made possible by the Nile River, which provided fertile land for agriculture

  • The surrounding desert acted as a natural barrier against invaders

4. Nubia, Kush, Meroë, and Axum

• Nubia and Egypt

  • Nubia, located in present-day Sudan, interacted with Egypt as early as the 4th millennium BCE

  • Grain production and the concept of monarchy may have originated in Nubia and spread to Egypt

  • Egypt made Nubia an Egyptian colony in the 2nd millennium BCE, importing resources and requiring Nubian nobles' sons to live in Egypt as hostages

• Kush and Axum

  • With Egypt's decline, Nubia established the independent kingdom of Kush, which had similarities to Egyptian culture

  • Kush declined with the fall of the Roman Empire and was eventually conquered by the kingdom of Axum

  • Axum, located in present-day Ethiopia, became the first Christian state in sub-Saharan Africa and retained its unique culture and independence

5. Ancient Ghana

• Origins and Commerce

  • Ghana, the first known kingdom in western Sudan, was founded by the Soninke people

  • Its name comes from the Soninke word for 'king'

  • Ghana's power lay in its commerce, particularly in gold and salt trade

  • Ghana traded with North Africa, exporting pepper, slaves, and gold in exchange for silk, cotton, glass beads, horses, and more

• Decline and Successor

  • Ghana's decline began in the 12th century due to commercial and religious rivalries

  • The Almoravids, Islamic Berbers from Morocco, led to Ghana's defeat

  • After Ghana's defeat, Mali emerged as the successor kingdom

6. The Empire of Mali

• Sundiata and Islam

  • Mali's population grew to 8 million under the rule of Sundiata

  • Sundiata was a Muslim and Mali became an Islamic state

  • Mali's most important city was Timbuktu, which became a major trade hub and center for Islamic learning

• Mansa Musa and Decline

  • Mansa Musa, who ruled from 1312-1337, undertook a famous pilgrimage to Mecca and distributed gold along the way

  • After Mansa Musa's death, Mali declined

  • The Songhai, one of Mali's formerly subject peoples, captured Timbuktu and founded a new empire

7. The Empire of Songhai

• Rise and Centralization

  • The Songhai seceded from Mali and built the largest of the western Sudanese empires under Sunni Ali

  • Askia Muhammad Toure centralized the administration, established relations with Egypt and Morocco, and spread Islam

  • Timbuktu became a center of Islamic learning with mosques, schools, and book dealers

• Religious and Cultural Diversity

  • Despite being an Islamic empire, indigenous religions and languages persisted outside urban areas

  • Songhai reached its peak under Askia Daud, but failed to adapt to changing power dynamics

  • The Portuguese and other Europeans disrupted the Trans-Sahara trade, leading to the fall of Songhai

8. Western African Forest Region

• Early Settlers

  • The Nok settled in southern Nigeria around 500 BCE

  • Known for their ironworking technology and terra-cotta sculptures

• Migration and Cultural Diversification

  • Significant migration into the forests began after 1000 CE

  • Migration occurred in small groups over an extended period

  • Cultural diversification resulted from the migration

• City Development

  • Benin City dates back to the 13th century

  • Life in Nigeria dates back to the 11th century

  • Some cities in the region grew to be powerful

• Role in Atlantic Slave Trade

  • Peoples of the forest region played a role in the Atlantic slave trade

  • They were both slave traders and victims

• Importance for African-American History

  • The peoples of the forest region are of particular importance for African-American history

  • Survey of the most important peoples begins with those of Senegambia in the northwest

Questions to know

• What was the role of Africa in the evolution of modern humanity?

• Discuss the controversy concerning racial identity of ancient Egyptians.

• Describe the mischaracterization of west Africa being uncivilized people and give examples from the Ghana, Mali, and Songhai empires.