Chapter 7 Learning

Learning Overview

• Learning is a relatively permanent change in an organism’s behavior due to experience.

• There are three types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning.

Classical Conditioning

Definition

• Classical conditioning is a learning process that occurs when two stimuli are repeatedly paired together: a neutral stimulus (CS) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (US) that elicits an unconditioned response (UR).

• Example: Pavlov's dogs learned to associate a tone (CS) with food (US), resulting in salivation (CR).

Key Concepts

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): Stimulus that naturally triggers a response.

• Unconditioned Response (UR): Unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus.

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that becomes associated with the unconditioned stimulus.

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

Processes in Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition: The initial stage where the link between CS and US is established.

• Extinction: The diminishing of the CR when the CS is repeatedly presented without the US.

• Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of an extinguished response after a time delay.

• Generalization: The tendency to respond to stimuli similar to the CS.

• Discrimination: The learned ability to distinguish between the CS and other stimuli that do not signal an US.

Cognitive Processes and Biological Constraints

• Early behaviorists underestimated cognitive processes. For example, organisms may learn about the predictability of events.

• Biological predispositions affect what can be conditioned. Certain associations are learned more rapidly due to evolutionary relevance.

Applications of Classical Conditioning

• Used in therapies for addiction recovery and to condition immune responses.

Operant Conditioning

Definition

• Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior.

Key Concepts

• Reinforcer: An event that strengthens the behavior it follows.

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a desirable stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., receiving a reward).

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase behavior (e.g., using an umbrella to avoid getting wet).

• Punishment: An event that decreases the behavior that it follows.

  • Positive Punishment: Adding an undesirable stimulus (e.g., spanking).

  • Negative Punishment: Removing a desirable stimulus (e.g., taking away a toy).

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcing the desired response every time it occurs, leading to rapid learning but also rapid extinction.

• Partial Reinforcement: Reinforcing responses only sometimes, which results in slower acquisition but greater resistance to extinction.

  • Types include fixed-ratio, variable-ratio, fixed-interval, and variable-interval schedules.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

• Can be used in education, workplaces, and at home to encourage desirable behaviors.

Observational Learning

Definition

• Observational learning occurs by observing and imitating the behavior of others.

Key Studies and Concepts

• Albert Bandura's Bobo doll experiment demonstrated that children can learn aggressive behaviors through observation.

• Modeling: Learning by observing the behavior of others.

• Role of Mirror Neurons: These neurons fire both when an individual acts and when they observe another performing the same action, facilitating imitation and empathy.

Applications of Observational Learning

• Effective in various contexts like education, physical training, and social behaviors.

• Positive models can encourage constructive behavior, while negative influences (antisocial modeling) can result in misconduct and aggression.

Conclusion

• Classical and operant conditioning are foundational concepts in understanding learning.

• Observational learning highlights the importance of social influence and modeling.

• Individual behaviors, whether positive (prosocial) or negative (antisocial), can be shaped through all forms of learning.

Operant Conditioning Understanding Post:

1. Positive Reinforcement Example: I used to struggle with completing my homework on time. However, when I started finishing my assignments early and my parents rewarded me with extra screen time or treats, I felt encouraged to keep up this behavior. The reward made me associate completing my homework with something positive, which strengthened my habit of finishing assignments promptly. Consequently, I began to prioritize my homework more effectively, leading to better academic performance.

2. Negative Reinforcement Example: During my last school year, I dreaded doing morning chores because I had to wake up earlier than usual. However, when I started completing my chores faster, my parents allowed me to sleep in on weekends as a result. The removal of early waking (something undesirable) reinforced my quicker completion of chores, making me more willing to do them regularly. In the future, I learned to associate getting my chores done swiftly with the benefit of relaxing a bit longer on weekends.