Exam_1_Review__1_

Exam Review Overview

Test FormatAdministered via: Canvas platform, which facilitates easy access to materials and exam submission.Total Questions: 56

• True/False Questions: 15 questions designed to assess foundational knowledge and comprehension of key concepts.

• Matching Questions: 4 matching sets containing 24 items that examine familiarity with terms and contributions of prominent figures in the field.

• Multiple Choice Questions: 37 questions offering a broader range of topics and challenging critical thinking skills.

• Bonus Question: An additional question worth +5 points which can enhance the overall score significantly.

Recommendation: It is highly recommended to review the major bones of the skull due to their importance in understanding human anatomy and evolutionary biology.

Practice Exam Questions: Available on Canvas (HIGHLY RECOMMENDED) to provide an opportunity for self-assessment and to enhance test preparedness.

Lecture 1: What is Biological Anthropology?

• Definition of Anthropology: A comprehensive study focusing on the human condition, integrating both biological and cultural perspectives.

• Four Fields of Biological Anthropology:

  • Biological: Examining humans as a biological species, including anatomy and physiology.

  • Cultural: Exploring the aspects of human culture, including social practices, beliefs, and values.

  • Archaeology: Investigating material culture through artifacts, to understand past human societies.

  • Linguistics: Analyzing human language, its structure, development, and social implications.

• Encompassing Areas: The field covers various domains including forensic anthropology, genetics, primatology, human variation, paleopathology, paleontology, and evolutionary biology, demonstrating its broad application and relevance.

• Interdisciplinary Nature: This field integrates principles from social sciences, natural sciences, and humanities, highlighting the interconnectedness of human existence.

Lecture 2: The Scientific Method

• Steps of the Scientific Method:

  1. Ask a question based on observations.

  2. Do background research to understand existing knowledge.

  3. Construct a hypothesis that proposes a possible explanation.

  4. Test the hypothesis through experiments and observations.

  5. Analyze data gathered during experiments and draw conclusions based on this data.

  6. Communicate results to the scientific community.

  7. Replicate and validate results through repeated testing and peer review.

• Hypothesis Characteristics: Effective hypotheses must be both testable and falsifiable to drive scientific inquiry.

• Key Concepts in the Scientific Method:

  • Paradigm: A universally recognized framework or worldview that guides understanding.

  • Theory: A comprehensively tested explanation of facts, supported by substantial evidence.

  • Fact: An objective observation that can be verified through data.

  • Proof of Non-Existence: Emphasizes that the absence of evidence is not evidence of absence, since new data can always emerge to challenge previous assumptions.

• Key Figures in Scientific History: Important contributors include Aristotle, Copernicus, Linnaeus, Georges-Louis Leclerc (Comte Buffon), Georges Cuvier, Thomas Malthus, Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, Etienne Geoffrey Saint-Hilaire, and Charles Lyell, each of whom influenced scientific thought.

Lecture 3: Natural Selection

• Historical Perspective: Early beliefs regarding the Earth’s age (6,000 years) and the idea that species were fixed and unchanging.

• Impact of Geologists: Their findings challenged existing beliefs and demonstrated Earth's deep time through fossil records, indicating evolutionary changes.

• Darwin & Wallace: They developed the theory of natural selection, emphasizing that environmental pressures can lead to the survival of the fittest, guiding species' development over time.

• Natural Selection Mechanism: The process by which individuals with favorable traits successfully reproduce, leading to gradual changes in populations over generations and possibly new species formation. The understanding of inheritance mechanisms has evolved, particularly due to Mendel's work in 1865.

• Key Concept Definitions:

  • Natural Selection: Operates on individuals, with fitness being context-dependent based on environmental factors.

Lecture 4: Heredity

• DNA Structure: Composed of a double-stranded helix with nucleotides which include a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogen bases (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine).

• RNA Structure: Consists of a single strand involving ribose, phosphate, and nitrogen bases, substituting uracil for thymine.

• DNA Replication Process: Entails the pairing of complementary bases to form identical DNA strands for cell division.

• Transcription Process: mRNA is synthesized from the DNA template, with thymine replaced by uracil.

• Gene Expression: Involves expressing exons (coding regions) and removing introns (non-coding regions) to produce mature mRNA.

• Translation: Process where ribosomes synthesize proteins using mRNA sequences and linked amino acids through codon interactions.

Lecture 5: Genetics

• Gametes vs. Somatic Cells: Gametes are the reproductive cells (haploid, n=23 in humans), while somatic cells make up the body and are diploid (2n=46).

• Mitosis: A cellular division process yielding two genetically identical daughter cells through a single round of division.

• Meiosis: A specialized division yielding four genetically unique daughter cells, incorporating recombination and two rounds of division.

• Nondisjunction: A cellular error in meiosis where chromosomes fail to separate correctly, leading to genetic abnormalities.

• Mendelian Genetics Principles:

  • Principle of Segregation: During gamete formation, two alleles for a characteristic segregate so that each gamete holds only one allele.

  • Principle of Dominance: Dominant alleles will mask the expression of recessive alleles.

  • Principle of Independent Assortment: The segregation of one allele pair is independent of the separation of other pairs, allowing for genetic diversity.

• Dominance Types:

  • Complete Dominance: One trait is observed (e.g., tall pea plants dominate over short ones).

  • Incomplete Dominance: Results in blending of traits (e.g., pink flowers appearing from red and white parents).

  • Co-dominance: Both traits expressed simultaneously (e.g., AB blood type).

Lecture 6: Microevolution

• Definition: Refers to small-scale changes occurring in populations, affecting allele frequencies over time.

• Mechanisms of Microevolution:

  • Mutation: Changes in DNA that can introduce new traits.

  • Non-random Mating: Selection based on specific traits rather than random pairing.

  • Natural Selection: Leads to survival of individuals better suited to their environment.

  • Gene Flow: Movement of genes between populations can alter allele frequencies.

  • Genetic Drift: Random fluctuations in allele frequencies, particularly in small populations.

• Selection Types:

  • Stabilizing Selection: Favors intermediate traits.

  • Directional Selection: Favors one extreme phenotype.

  • Disruptive Selection: Favors both extremes, reducing intermediate phenotypes.

Lecture 7: Macroevolution

• Definitions: Differentiates microevolution (small changes) from macroevolution, which can result in the emergence of new species over long time periods.

• Speciation Types:

  • Sympatric: New species evolve from a single ancestral source while inhabiting the same region.

  • Allopatric: New species arise due to geographic isolation.

  • Parapatric: Occurs when populations are separated by a gradient of habitats.

• Species Concepts:

  • Morphological Concept: Based on structural features.

  • Biological Concept: Defines species based on reproductive isolation.

  • Recognition Concept: Emphasizes the ability to recognize mates.

  • Ecological Niche Concept: Focuses on the role of species within an ecosystem.

• Phylogenetic Analysis:

  • Cladograms vs. Phylogenetic Trees: Cladograms illustrate derived characteristics without exhibiting time, while phylogenetic trees characterize historical lineage, depicting ancestor-descendant relationships.

  • Monophyletic, Paraphyletic, and Polyphyletic Groups: Defined through their evolutionary relationships, contributing to our understanding of specimen relationships and evolutionary biology.

Lecture 8: The Human Body

• Anatomical Terminology: In-depth understanding of the planes (sagittal, coronal, transverse), regions, and systems (nervous, skeletal, muscular, etc.) of the body is essential for comprehending human anatomy.

• Brain and Nervous System: Key parts (e.g., cerebrum, cerebellum, brainstem) and their functions should be identified and understood.

• Skeletal Structure: An overall understanding is required, particularly the composition and anatomy of the skull, which has significance in both functional and evolutionary contexts.