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World History - Quarterly Exam Reviewer

Grade 9 - Social Studies

1. Absolutism and Constitutionalism (Limited Monarchy)

Absolutism

• Definition: A political system where a ruler holds absolute power, claiming divine right (power given by God).

• Characteristics:

  • Centralized power

  • No checks and balances

  • Strong military and bureaucracy

  • Suppression of opposition (no freedom of speech or political dissent)

• Examples of Absolute Monarchs:

  • Louis XIV (France) - "Sun King," built the Palace of Versailles, famous for saying “L'État, c'est moi” (I am the state).

  • Peter the Great (Russia) - Modernized Russia, built St. Petersburg, reformed the army.

  • Philip II (Spain) - Defender of Catholicism, led Spain into decline due to costly wars.

  • Frederick the Great (Prussia) - Strong military leader, promoted enlightenment ideas in government.

Limited Monarchy (Constitutionalism)

• Definition: A government system where a monarch’s power is limited by a constitution or laws, often with a parliament.

• Key Events in England:

  • Magna Carta (1215) – Limited the power of the King for the first time.

  • Glorious Revolution (1688) – Bloodless overthrow of James II, bringing in William and Mary who agreed to constitutional limits.

  • English Bill of Rights (1689) – Guaranteed rights to citizens and established Parliament's superiority over the monarchy.

2. Scientific Revolution and Enlightenment

Scientific Revolution (1500s-1700s)

• Definition: A period of major scientific discoveries that challenged traditional beliefs and relied on observation, experimentation, and reason.

• Key Figures and Contributions:

  • Nicolaus Copernicus – Heliocentric theory (Sun is the center, not Earth).

  • Galileo Galilei – Improved the telescope, proved heliocentric theory, challenged the Church’s teachings.

  • Isaac Newton – Laws of motion and gravity, foundation of physics.

  • Francis Bacon – Developed the scientific method (hypothesis, experiment, conclusion).

Enlightenment (1600s-1700s)

• Definition: Intellectual movement that applied reason to government, society, and human rights.

• Key Philosophers and Ideas:

  • John Locke – Natural rights (life, liberty, property), government should protect these rights.

  • Montesquieu – Separation of powers (legislative, executive, judicial) to prevent tyranny.

  • Voltaire – Advocated for free speech, religious tolerance.

  • Rousseau – "Social Contract" theory: governments should serve the people.

  • Mary Wollstonecraft – Advocated for women's rights and gender equality.

• Effects:

  • Inspired revolutions (American, French, Latin American).

  • Influenced democratic governments and constitutions worldwide.

3. American Revolution (1775-1783)

Causes:

• Taxation without representation – Colonists resented British taxes (Stamp Act, Tea Act) without having representatives in Parliament.

• Enlightenment ideas – Inspired colonists to seek self-government.

• British policies – Restrictive laws, military presence, and lack of colonial freedom.

Key Events:

• Declaration of Independence (1776) – Written by Thomas Jefferson, declared US independence from Britain.

• Battle of Saratoga (1777) – Turning point; convinced France to support the Americans.

• Battle of Yorktown (1781) – Final major battle; British General Cornwallis surrendered.

• Treaty of Paris (1783) – Ended the war, recognized the US as an independent nation.

4. French Revolution (1789-1799)

Causes:

1. Social Inequality – The Three Estates:

   • First Estate: Clergy (privileged, no taxes).

   • Second Estate: Nobles (exempt from many taxes).

   • Third Estate: Commoners (97% of the population, paid high taxes).

2. Economic Crisis – Debt from wars (including American Revolution), food shortages, and unfair taxation.

3. Weak Leadership – King Louis XVI and Queen Marie Antoinette were unpopular and failed to reform the system.

4. Enlightenment Ideas – Inspired people to challenge monarchy and demand equality.

Key Events:

• Storming of the Bastille (1789) – Marked the start of the revolution.

• Declaration of the Rights of Man (1789) – Proclaimed freedom and equal rights for all men.

• Reign of Terror (1793-1794) – Led by Maximilien Robespierre, thousands executed by guillotine (including King Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette).

• Rise of Napoleon (1799) – Overthrew the government and became ruler of France.

5. Age of Napoleon (1799-1815)

Napoleon’s Rise to Power:

• Took control of France in a coup d’état (1799).

• Crowned himself Emperor (1804), showing he was above the Pope.

Achievements:

• Napoleonic Code – Legal system promoting equality, religious tolerance, and merit-based government positions.

• Military Expansion – Conquered much of Europe, defeating Austria, Prussia, and Spain.

• Economic Reforms – Improved infrastructure, industry, and education.

Downfall:

• Invasion of Russia (1812) – Failed; Russian winter and scorched-earth tactics devastated his army.

• Battle of Leipzig (1813) – Defeated by European coalitions.

• Battle of Waterloo (1815) – Final defeat by British and Prussian forces; exiled to St. Helena.

6. Industrial Revolution (1700s-1800s)

Definition:

• A shift from manual labor and agrarian economies to machine-based manufacturing in factories.

Causes:

• Agricultural revolution (better farming methods = more food, less labor).

• Population growth = more workers and demand for goods.

• New technologies (steam engine, textile machines).

• Natural resources (coal and iron).

Key Inventions:

• Steam Engine (James Watt) – Powered machines, trains, ships.

• Spinning Jenny (James Hargreaves) – Increased textile production.

• Cotton Gin (Eli Whitney) – Made cotton processing faster.

• Factory System – Replaced small workshops; mass production.

Effects:

• Positive:

  • Faster and cheaper production.

  • Growth of cities (urbanization).

  • Job creation in factories.

• Negative:

  • Poor working conditions (long hours, child labor, low wages).

  • Pollution and overcrowded cities.

  • Rise of capitalism and demand for workers' rights (led to labor unions).