Ottoman Empire
The Republic of Turkey celebrated its 100th anniversary on October 29, 2023, marking a century since its founding following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.
1. Rise and Peak of the Ottoman Empire
1923 saw the end of over 600 years of Ottoman Imperial rule. At its zenith in the mid-16th century, the Empire spanned much of the Middle East, North Africa, and Eastern Europe.
Founding and Expansion: Originating as a minor regional power in Northwestern Anatolia, the Ottoman Dynasty rapidly expanded its territory. This expansion was supported by advancements in governmental, social, and economic systems, fostering one of the world's most diverse and prosperous empires.
2. Origins of the Ottoman Empire
The establishment of the Ottoman Empire is rooted in the migration of Turkic peoples from Eastern Asia.
Turkic Migration: Originally from Northeastern Asia, Turkic peoples gradually migrated westward across the Eurasian Steppe. By the 7th century, they were in the Altay Mountains region (present-day Russia, Kazakhstan, and Mongolia). Over subsequent centuries, they continued their southward and westward movement, with many settling in a semi-nomadic lifestyle around the Caspian and Aral Seas.
The Seljuk Dynasty: The Oghuz, a prominent Turkic tribe in this region, saw one of its clan leaders, Seljuk, establish his own dynasty in the late 10th century. Over the following decades, Seljuk and his descendants formed the Seljuk Empire by expanding into Persia. They adopted Persian language and culture, and converted to Islam.
Conflict with Byzantium: By the 1060s, the Seljuks reached the borders of the Byzantine Empire in Western Anatolia. Sporadic clashes escalated into the Byzantine-Seljuk War. A decisive Seljuk victory at the Battle of Manzikert in 1071 allowed them to control the Near East and push deeper into present-day Turkey.
Decline of the Seljuks: The Seljuk Empire gradually declined and fragmented over the next two centuries into smaller Turkic states like the Sultanate of Rum. By the early 14th century, the Sultanate of Rum also fragmented into numerous smaller principalities known as Anatolian Beyliks.
3. Founding of the Ottoman Dynasty and Conquest of Constantinople
From the tribes of Northwestern Turkey, a warlord named Osman emerged as the founder of the Ottoman Empire. Although details of his life and reign are limited, he is recognized as the dynasty's progenitor.
Ottoman Expansion against Byzantium: The century following Osman's reign was characterized by Ottoman efforts to conquer the remnants of the Byzantine Empire. By the 14th century, the once-expansive Byzantine Empire was reduced to parts of the Balkans, mainland Greece, the Greek Islands, and a small territory within modern Turkey. Their capital, Constantinople, was a formidable and heavily fortified city.
Key Victories: To expand beyond Northwestern Turkey and take the Byzantine capital, the Ottomans had to defeat the Byzantines.
1331: The city of Nicaea fell to the Turks.
1369: Adrianople (Edirne), a city near Constantinople, fell to the Turks and briefly served as their capital. Subsequent conquests ensued in Serbia and Bulgaria.
Siege and Fall of Constantinople (1453):
After a period of internal turmoil, Mehmed II was restored to the Ottoman Sultanate in 1451 and was determined to conquer Constantinople.
In early April 1453, Mehmed II initiated a seven-week-long siege. The city walls were eventually breached, allowing the Ottoman army to flood in.
Constantine XI, the last Byzantine Emperor and namesake of the city's founder, fell in the fighting on May 29, 1453.
Constantinople became the capital of the expanding Ottoman Empire. The Hagia Sophia, built over 900 years prior by Emperor Justinian, was re-consecrated as a mosque, with minaret towers added shortly after.
4. Zenith of Ottoman Expansion (15th-16th Centuries)
The fall of Constantinople marked the beginning of intensive Ottoman expansion throughout the Eastern Mediterranean, Middle East, North Africa, the Balkans, and the Black Sea regions.
Mehmed II (d. 1481):
Quickly overran Morea in Greece, the Empire of Trebizond in Northern Turkey, and Bosnia in the Balkans.
Expanded into Southern and Eastern Turkey and conquered Albania.
Established an Ottoman presence on the northern shores of the Black Sea via an expedition to the Crimean Peninsula in the mid-1470s.
Bayezid II (reigned ~30 years):
Added territories in Syria and the Levant after defeating the Mamluks of Egypt.
Consolidated Ottoman control over the Aegean Sea by battling the Republic of Venice (1499-1503), which controlled many islands and trade routes.
Selim I (1512-1520):
Conquered virtually all of North Africa.
His armies defeated the Mamluks at the Battle of Khan Yunis (1516) and Ridaniya (1517), bringing Egypt and much of Libya under Ottoman control.
Hayreddin Barbarossa, ruler of much of Algeria and Tunisia, became an Ottoman vassal in 1519.
Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566):
The most famous Sultan, his half-century reign saw the Ottomans emerge as a foremost global power.
Completed the conquest of much of the Balkans, advancing armies to the gates of Vienna (unsuccessfully besieged in 1529).
Secured Rhodes from the Knights of Saint John (1522).
Captured Tripoli in North Africa (1551).
Expanded into the Arabian Peninsula and Iraq.
By the end of his reign, Ottoman rule stretched from Hungary and the northern Black Sea shores south to Egypt and Oman, and from Algeria in the west to the Caspian Sea in the east.
5. Ottoman Military Might and Conflicts with Christendom
The success of Ottoman expansion was greatly due to its military's proficiency, which featured a balanced combination of well-trained infantry, cavalry, and artillery, unmatched in its era.
Janissaries: Elite infantry soldiers, often captured as child slaves from Christian lands in Southeastern Europe and forcibly converted to Islam. They were integrated into the Ottoman army under strict discipline and professionalism, making them an extremely effective fighting force.
Wars with Spain in the Mediterranean: From the early 16th century, the Ottomans engaged in prolonged conflict against Christendom, particularly Spain, for dominance of the Mediterranean. Spain, controlling southern Italy and its islands, led Christian coalitions against the advancing Ottomans, resulting in major clashes:
Great Siege of Malta (1565): The Ottomans attempted to capture Malta from the Knights of Saint John (who received it from Spain after losing Rhodes to the Turks decades prior). The siege ended in Ottoman failure.
Battle of Lepanto (1571): A Spanish-led Christian alliance confronted a massive Ottoman armada off the coast of Northwestern Greece. This naval battle involved over 400 ships and 130,000 men and resulted in another defeat for the Ottomans, proving that their threat could be contained.
Expansion into Central Europe: Despite setbacks in the Mediterranean, the Ottomans shifted focus to Central Europe.
Following their victory over the Hungarians at the Battle of Mohács in 1526, control over Central Europe was within reach, with the Austrian capital of Vienna being the primary obstacle.
Siege of Vienna (1683): Led by Grand Vizier Kara Mustafa Pasha, an army of over 150,000 Ottomans besieged Vienna. They failed to take the city, and a Christian Holy League relief force led by Polish King John III Sobieski routed them on September 12, 1683. This featured the largest cavalry charge in history, with 18,000 horsemen.
Turning Point: The defeat at Vienna marked a significant turning point for the Ottoman advance into Europe, after which they gained no further ground on the continent.
6. Stagnation and Decline of the Empire (17th-18th Centuries)
From the late 17th into the early 18th century, the Ottoman Empire began a period of stagnation and decline. This was largely attributed to the growing complacency of the Sultans.
Decentralized Governance: The Ottoman system, initially characterized by active Sultans directly involved in imperial affairs from the Topkapi Palace in Constantinople, became increasingly decentralized. Day-to-day decision-making increasingly fell to the Grand Vizier (prime minister) and a bureaucracy of officials, while Sultans spent more time in their harems and gardens.
Tolerant Society: The Empire was notably tolerant. While conversion to Islam benefited social advancement, it was not mandatory. Christians and other religious groups were accepted, and the Empire became a Haven for European Jews facing persecution, notably from Spain. Cities like Thessaloniki became centers of religious cosmopolitanism, with 54% of its population being Jewish by 1519.
Economic Decline: The Ottoman Empire initially thrived due to extensive trade networks along the Silk Road, connecting distant regions like India and China to cities like Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, and Damascus. However, the shift in global economic activity from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, with large ocean-going vessels bypassing Ottoman territories, rendered these overland trade routes obsolete and reduced Europe's reliance on them.
Loss of Power: This economic stagnation and imperial decline caused the Ottoman Empire to fall behind its European rivals, who were undergoing a scientific revolution and rapid technological advancements. By the 18th century, the Ottoman position was seen less as a threat and more as a weakness ripe for exploitation, with past conquests now targets for reclamation.
7. The "Sick Man of Europe" (19th Century)
Russia and Austria actively exploited Ottoman weakness, seizing lands along the northern Black Sea, Caucasus, and Balkans. Concurrently, North African governors asserted greater independence, leading to de facto sovereignty for Algeria, Tunisia, Cyrenaica, and Egypt by the late 18th century.
Further Fracturing: The already dire situation worsened in the 19th century, leading to the Ottoman Empire being dubbed "the sick man of Europe."
1804: A Serbian uprising challenged Ottoman control in the Balkans.
1821-1829: The Greek War of Independence led to an independent Greek state, supported by Britain, France, and Russia, who sought to weaken Ottoman presence in the region.
1830: France invaded and colonized Algeria, ending nominal Ottoman rule.
Crimean War (1850s): Russia sought to accelerate Ottoman decline by advancing into their Black Sea territories. Unlike previous instances, Britain and France intervened, not to join Russia, but to prevent the Ottoman Empire's total collapse. Their aim was to preserve the European balance of power, preventing any single nation from gaining too much territory or influence. The Crimean War provided a crucial, albeit temporary, respite for the declining Ottomans.
Emergence of New States: Despite this, the 1860s, 1870s, and 1880s saw many new countries emerge from Ottoman provinces in the Balkans, with Romania and Serbia declaring independence, and Bulgaria gaining increasing autonomy. Austria-Hungary and Russia continued their relentless attacks in the Balkans and Caucasus.
Early 20th Century: By the early 1910s, Italy seized Libya, and Albania became independent. European powers increasingly discussed dissecting and dividing the remaining Ottoman Empire among themselves.
8. The Young Turks and World War I
The prolonged decline sparked growing concern among younger generations within the Ottoman Empire, many identifying as Turkish nationalists and advocating for political reforms to rejuvenate its prospects.
The Young Turks Movement: This group aimed to replace the centuries-old system of Sultan and ministers with a modern constitutional monarchy, a Western-style Parliament, and a civil service.
1908 Revolution: They launched a revolution that successfully ushered in a period of constitutional government.
Internal Turmoil: However, the Young Turks were a loose alliance of liberals, academics, and conservative military elements. Their inability to rule by consensus led to tumultuous internal politics throughout the 1910s, further exacerbating the Empire's collapse.
World War I (1914-1918):
The Ottoman Empire's end was inextricably linked to WWI. Until then, Turkey had avoided involvement with the Triple Entente (France, Russia, Britain) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy).
In summer 1914, seeing an opportunity to push back against Russian advancements, Turkey joined Germany and Austria-Hungary as part of the Central Powers.
Mixed Fortunes: The Ottomans experienced mixed results during the war.
Gallipoli Campaign: They secured a major victory against British and ANZAC forces.
Arab Revolt: In the Middle East and Levant, they lost significant territory to the Arab Revolt (1916-1918), instigated by T.E. Lawrence.
Armenian Genocide: From 1915, the government engaged in acts of genocide against its Armenian subjects, resulting in an estimated 1.5 million deaths.
Overall Disaster: Ultimately, the war proved disastrous for Turkey. Like Germany and Austria-Hungary, it could not sustain the war effort, and by 1918, the Turkish military was collapsing on multiple fronts.
9. Dissolution and the Birth of the Republic of Turkey
With the end of WWI in late 1918, the victorious Allies (Britain, France, Greece, and Italy, who had switched sides in 1916) occupied much of Turkey and began contemplating its post-war future.
Division of Ottoman Territories: The last remaining Ottoman possessions in the Levant and Middle East were divided by Britain and France as imperial mandates.
Threat to Turkish Integrity: The Ottoman state was largely confined to modern-day Turkey, but even its territorial integrity was threatened by Greece (seeking lands once occupied by Byzantines and ancient Greeks) and Italy (seeking control of islands like Rhodes as war compensation).
Turkish War of Independence (1919-1922):
This situation sparked a revolt against Allied occupation in May 1919.
Initially, the remnants of the Ottoman government in Constantinople sided with the Allies to preserve what remained of their empire.
Their opponents, the Turkish nationalists, led by former Ottoman General Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, occupied the country's center.
Despite early military losses to Greek and Allied forces campaigning inland, the Turkish nationalists fought back ardently in 1921 and 1922, gradually pushing out the Greeks and securing a favorable Armistice in October 1922.
Founding of the Republic (1923):
The following year, under Atatürk's leadership, the Grand National Assembly in Ankara was recognized as the legitimate Turkish government.
The Treaty of Lausanne ratified the independence of the modern Republic of Turkey, officially ending the war.
The capital was transferred from Constantinople to Ankara.
On October 29, 1923, the Ottoman Empire, which had dominated much of the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of Eastern Europe for over 600 years, was formally abolished.
The Republic of Turkey celebrated its 100th anniversary on October 29, 2023, following the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire, which had over 600 years of imperial rule.
1. Rise and Peak of the Ottoman Empire
At its height in the mid-16th century, the Ottoman Empire was a vast, diverse, and prosperous entity, expanding significantly from its origins in Northwestern Anatolia due to advanced governmental, social, and economic systems.
2. Origins of the Ottoman Empire
The Empire's roots trace back to Turkic peoples migrating westward from Eastern Asia. One prominent tribe, the Oghuz, saw its leader Seljuk establish a dynasty in the late 10th century, forming the Seljuk Empire which expanded into Persia, adopted Persian culture, and converted to Islam. Conflicts with the Byzantine Empire, notably the Battle of Manzikert in 1071, allowed Seljuk control over the Near East. The Seljuk Empire eventually declined and fragmented into smaller Turkic states, including the Sultanate of Rum, which further broke into Anatolian Beyliks by the early 14th century.
3. Founding of the Ottoman Dynasty and Conquest of Constantinople
From the Beyliks, Osman founded the Ottoman Dynasty. The Ottomans spent a century conquering the remnants of the Byzantine Empire. Key victories included the fall of Nicaea (1331) and Adrianople (1369). The Siege and Fall of Constantinople in 1453, led by Mehmed II, marked a pivotal moment. The city became the new Ottoman capital, and the Hagia Sophia was converted into a mosque.
4. Zenith of Ottoman Expansion (15th-16th Centuries)
After Constantinople's fall, the Empire experienced intensive expansion under sultans like Mehmed II (conquering Greece, Albania, and parts of Turkey), Bayezid II (adding Syrian and Levantine territories), Selim I (conquering virtually all of North Africa), and most notably, Suleiman the Magnificent (1520-1566). Suleiman's reign saw the Ottomans become a foremost global power, expanding deeply into the Balkans, securing Rhodes, capturing Tripoli, and extending control across the Arabian Peninsula and Iraq.
5. Ottoman Military Might and Conflicts with Christendom
The Ottoman military, featuring elite Janissary infantry, was highly proficient. They engaged in prolonged conflicts with Christian European powers, particularly Spain, for Mediterranean dominance. Significant naval defeats occurred at the Great Siege of Malta (1565) and the Battle of Lepanto (1571). Despite these naval setbacks, the Ottomans shifted focus to Central Europe. However, their advance into Europe halted after a decisive defeat at the Siege of Vienna in 1683, marking a turning point.
6. Stagnation and Decline of the Empire (17th-18th Centuries)
From the late 17th century, the Empire entered a period of stagnation due to Sultan complacency, increasing decentralization of governance, and a shift in global economic activity from the Mediterranean to the Atlantic, which rendered traditional Silk Road trade routes obsolete. This led to economic decline and the Empire falling behind technologically advanced European rivals.
7. The "Sick Man of Europe" (19th Century)
In the 19th century, European powers, particularly Russia and Austria, exploited Ottoman weakness, seizing territories. North African governors gained de facto independence. The Empire further fractured with the Greek War of Independence (1821-1829), leading to an independent Greek state, and French colonization of Algeria (1830). The Crimean War (1850s) saw British and French intervention to prevent total Ottoman collapse and preserve the balance of power. Despite this, new states emerged in the Balkans, and European powers increasingly discussed partitioning the Empire.
8. The Young Turks and World War I
Growing concern over decline led to the Young Turks Movement, which sought to establish a modern constitutional monarchy and a Western-style Parliament. Their 1908 revolution brought constitutional government, but internal turmoil persisted. In World War I (1914-1918), the Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers. While achieving victories like the Gallipoli Campaign, they suffered losses to the Arab Revolt and engaged in the Armenian Genocide (1915), ultimately collapsing by 1918.
9. Dissolution and the Birth of the Republic of Turkey
After WWI, the victorious Allies occupied Turkey, dividing its Middle Eastern territories and threatening its territorial integrity. This sparked the Turkish War of Independence (1919-1922), led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Despite early losses, Turkish nationalists pushed out Allied forces, leading to the Treaty of Lausanne in 1923, which recognized the independence of the modern Republic of Turkey. The capital was moved from Constantinople to Ankara, and on October 29, 1923, the Ottoman Empire was formally abolished.