5.2: Reading ASSIGNMENT-Infancy & Childhood/Parents & Peer

Culture and Child Raising

• Different cultures raise kids differently

  • Western cultures ( the U.S.) focus on independence:

    • Kids are told to "be yourself" and "think about your own needs."

    • In the past, they were taught more about obedience and respecting traditions.

  • Asian & African cultures value family closeness:

    • Babies often sleep with their moms and stay close to family.

    • Family honor is important, what shames one person affects the whole family.

• Child-raising styles around the world

  • British upper-class parents hire nannies and send kids to boarding school at age 10.

  • African Gusii mothers carry babies on their backs with little talking or eye contact.

    • Westerners might worry about this, but Gusii people might question why Westerners leave babies in strollers and playpens.

• Different views on education

  • All parents help kids learn, but priorities differ.

  • Asian cultures focus more on school and hard work.

  • This could explain why Japanese & Taiwanese students do better in math.

Gender Development

• Gender = Social roles and expectations (what society says it means to be male or female).

• Sex = Biological (chromosomes & anatomy).

How Are We Alike, How Do We Differ? 

How Males and Females Are Alike:

• Out of 46 chromosomes, 45 are the same for both genders.

• No big differences in intelligence, vocabulary, memory, or happiness.

• How They Are Different:
  
  

  • Females:

    • Start puberty 2 years earlier.

    • Live 5 years longer.

    • Have more body fat, less muscle, and are shorter.

    • Show more emotions and have a stronger sense of smell.

    • More likely to have anxiety, depression, and eating disorders.

  • Males:

    • More likely to have autism, ADHD, color-blindness, and antisocial personality disorder.

    • 4x more likely to die by suicide or have alcohol problems.

    • More physically aggressive on average.

Cultural and Social Influences

• Society decides what is "normal" for boys and girls.

• Example: In 1918, pink was for boys (seen as a "strong" color), and blue was for girls (seen as "soft").

• Gender roles influence how people behave and what is expected of them.

Gender and Aggression

• Aggression: Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.

• Men vs. Women in Aggression:
  
  

  • Men admit to more physical aggression than women.

  • Women may be slightly more likely to engage in relational aggression (e.g., gossip, ostracism).

  • The aggression gender gap is more pronounced in cultures with gender inequality 

• Experimental Evidence:

  • Men tend to deliver stronger electric shocks in experiments 

• Crime Statistics:

  • Murder arrest ratio:

    • U.S.: 9 to 1 

    • Canada: 8 to 1 (male to female)

• Aggression in Society:

  • Men dominate violent activities like fighting, warring, and hunting 

  • Men show more support for war (e.g., American men supported the Iraq war more than women) 

Gender and Social Power

• Perception of Power Differences:

  • Around the world, people see men as dominant and independent and women as nurturing and socially connected.

• Men and Social Dominance:

  • Men focus more on power and achievement and tend to have higher status in society.

  • Leadership roles in companies, politics, and juries usually go to men.

  • In 2011, men held 80% of seats in world parliaments.

  • Women who seek political power face more criticism than men, while men’s ambition is more accepted.

• Leadership Styles:

  • Men: More likely to be strict and authoritative.

  • Women: More likely to listen to others and include them in decisions.

• Communication & Behavior:

  • Men:

    • Speak more assertively and interrupt more.

    • More likely to initiate touch, maintain strong eye contact, and smile less.

    • Apologize less, which reinforces their social power.

Gender and Social Connectedness

• Carol Gilligan’s Research

  • Psychologists used to think all kids want independence.

  • Gilligan said this is mostly true for Western boys, but girls focus more on relationships.

• How Boys and Girls Socialize Differently

  • Kids’ Play

    • Boys: Play in big groups, competitive, active, not much talking.

    • Girls: Play in small groups (often with one friend), less competitive, act out social situations.

  • Adults

    • Women: Like talking face-to-face, use conversations to build relationships.

    • Men: Prefer doing activities side by side, use conversation to solve problems.

  • Emails & Phone Use

    • People correctly guessed email authors’ gender 66% of the time.

    • Teen girls send twice as many texts as teen boys.

    • Women make more calls and talk longer than men.

• Job & Interest Differences

  • Women focus more on people, men focus more on things.

  • Men are 7x more likely to study computer science.

  • 87% of Wikipedia articles are written by men.

  • Women prefer jobs with flexible hours over high salaries.

  • Women are 5x more likely to be the main caregiver for kids.

• Friendships & Emotional Support

  • More people feel closer to their moms (90%) than their dads (69%).

  • Both men and women go to women for emotional support.

  • Women are more likely to comfort others when stressed ("tend and befriend").

• How Gender Roles Change Over Time

  • Teen Years & Early Adulthood

    • Girls become less confident, boys become more dominant.

  • After Having Kids

    • Parents, especially moms, become more traditional in gender roles.

  • By Age 50

    • Men become more caring and less dominant.

    • Women (especially working women) become more confident and assertive.

Gender roles are shaped by the biopsychosocial model

Gender Roles 

What Are Gender Roles?

• Definition: Gender roles are society’s expectations for how men and women should behave.

• Influence: Gender differences start with biology, but culture strengthens them.

How Gender Roles Have Changed Over Time

• Past Expectations (North America):

  • Men: Took the lead in dating, drove the car, paid the bill.

  • Women: Decorated the home, cared for children’s clothing, arranged childcare.

  • In the 1990s, mothers still stayed home with sick children 90% of the time.

  • Men spent more time at work and less time on housework and childcare.

• Other Cultures:

  • Nomadic (hunter-gatherer) societies: Boys and girls were raised the same.

  • Farming societies: Women worked in fields, men took care of animals, leading to more defined gender roles.

  • Modern industrial countries: Gender roles vary.

    • Most Equal: Australia, Scandinavian countries.

    • Least Equal: Middle Eastern & North African countries.

• Beliefs About Jobs:

  • "Men should get jobs first when work is scarce"

    • U.S., Britain, Spain: 1 in 8 people agree.

    • Nigeria, Pakistan, India: 4 in 5 people agree.

Big Changes for Women

• Voting Rights:

  • 1900: Only New Zealand let women vote.

  • 1960s–1970s: Women gained more rights in voting and work.

  • Today: Women are nearly 50% of U.S. workers and 54% of college graduates (up from 36% in 40 years).

• Future Jobs:

  • Careers requiring communication, teamwork, and focus are growing skills that many women succeed in.

Why Do Gender Roles Matter?

• Pros: They help divide tasks and avoid arguments.

• Cons: People may feel pressure or anxiety when they don’t follow expected roles.

How Do We Learn to Be Male or Female? Gender and Child-Rearing

Gender Identity & Learning

• Gender identity: A person’s sense of being male or female.

• Social learning theory: Kids learn gender roles by watching others, copying them, and getting rewarded or punished.

  • Example: “Nicole, you’re such a good mommy to your dolls” or “Big boys don’t cry, Alex.”

• Criticism of this theory:

  • Parents teaching gender roles isn’t the only reason kids act like boys or girls.

  • Even when parents try to avoid gender stereotypes, kids still separate into "boy groups" and "girl groups."

How Thinking Shapes Gender Identity

• Gender schema: A mental framework for understanding what it means to be a boy or girl.

• How it develops:

  • Before age 1: Babies notice differences between male and female voices and faces.

  • After age 2: Language starts shaping gender identity (e.g., "he" and "she" in English).

• Children as "gender detectives":

  • By age 3: Kids look for clues about gender in clothes, hair, toys, and language.

  • By age 5-6: They believe in strong boy/girl differences and mostly play with their own gender.

Effects of Gender Roles in Society

• Example: 2004 Tsunami

  • In some countries, more women died because they were at home doing chores, while men were outside fishing or working.

Understanding Transgender Identity

• Transgender: When a person’s gender identity doesn’t match the sex they were born with.

  • Gender identity vs. gender expression: Identity is how someone feels inside, while expression is how they show it (clothes, behavior, etc.).

• Transsexual individuals:

  • Feel like they are the opposite gender from their birth sex.

  • Some choose to transition medically.

• Gender identity is different from sexual orientation:

  • Transgender people can be attracted to any gender.

• Cross-dressing:

  • Some people, mostly men, dress in clothes of the opposite gender but don’t necessarily identify as transgender.

• Example: Jenna Talackova was the first transgender contestant in Miss Universe Canada in 2012.

Experience and Brain Development

• How Early Experiences Shape the Brain
  
  

  • Brain growth starts in the womb, influenced by nutrition and the environment.

  • Genes provide the basic brain structure, but experiences build and strengthen connections for learning and language.

• Rosenzweig & Krech’s Rat Experiment (1962)
  
  

  • Rats raised in stimulating environments developed bigger, stronger brains.

  • Their brain weight increased by 7-10%, and they had 20% more connections.

  • Repeated studies confirmed these results.

  • Rats in enriched environments were more active and curious than those in isolated ones.

• Why Early Stimulation Matters
  
  

  • Musicians who start before age 12 develop stronger brain circuits for finger movement.

  • Touch and massage help both baby rats and premature babies grow and develop faster.

• "Use It or Lose It" – How the Brain Changes
  
  

  • The brain strengthens connections that are used and gets rid of those that aren’t.

  • Early childhood is the best time to learn skills like language.

  • If a child isn’t exposed to language or vision early on, they may never develop those abilities fully.

• The Brain Keeps Changing Throughout Life
  
  

  • The brain stays flexible and adapts to new experiences.

  • Repeating an action (like playing an instrument or typing) strengthens brain areas controlling that skill.

How Much Credit Do Parents Deserve? 

• Parents and Society’s Expectations:

  • Parents feel proud when their kids succeed and guilty when they struggle.

  • In the past, psychologists blamed parents for problems like asthma and mental illness.

  • Society believes parents shape kids like clay, responsible for both their good and bad traits.

  • Popular culture often talks about “toxic parents” harming children.

• How Much Do Parents Really Shape Kids?

  • Do normal parenting mistakes really harm children?

  • Should parents be blamed for kids’ struggles, or does this ignore real abuse?

• When Parenting Matters Most:

  • Extreme cases like abuse, neglect, or strong family support show clear effects on children.

  • Kids from refugee families succeed because of close, supportive, and disciplined households.

• Genes vs. Parenting:

  • Parenting has a smaller effect on personality than most people think less than 10%.

  • Studies show siblings raised together can be as different as kids chosen at random.

  • Because of this, experts suggest parents shouldn’t take all the credit or blame for how kids turn out.

• Important 

  • Parenting isn’t the only thing that shapes kids, genetics play a big role.

  • Instead of stressing about being perfect, parents should focus on loving and supporting their kids.

Peer Influence

How Peers Influence Kids and Teens

• Kids and teens want to fit in, so they are easily influenced by their friends. (Harris, 1998, 2000)

• Examples:

  • Food Choices: If a child sees their friends eating a food they don’t like, they are more likely to try it.

  • Language & Accent: Kids pick up the accent of their friends, not their parents.

  • Smoking: Teens who smoke usually have friends who also smoke and encourage it.

    • This happens partly because kids choose friends with similar interests.

How Parents and Peers Shape Us (Gardner, 1998)

• Parents influence:

  • Education, discipline, responsibility, and how kids interact with adults.

• Peers influence:

  • Social skills, cooperation, and popularity.

• Parents still have control:

  • By choosing where to live and what schools their kids attend, they help shape the kind of friends their children will have.

Why Environment Matters

• Peers are only part of what influences a child, neighborhoods, schools, and culture also play a big role.

• “It takes a village to raise a child.” (Meaning: It’s not just parents, many people and factors shape a child’s future.)

Summary 

Parenting styles vary across cultures, with Western societies emphasizing independence and Asian and African cultures prioritizing family closeness. Gender differences exist but are often shaped by societal expectations, men tend to be more physically aggressive, while women focus on relationships and communication. Over time, gender roles have shifted, with women gaining rights and entering the workforce, though inequalities persist. While parents influence education and discipline, genetics and peer groups play a major role in shaping personality and behavior.