Key moments, names, and dates associated with the history of psychology (know which historical figures and moments came before/after others and which earlier historical figures seem to have influenced which later figures)

Key Historical Figures:

• Wilhelm Wundt: Father of modern psychology (1879).

• Edward Titchener: Structuralism.

• William James: Functionalism.

• Sigmund Freud: Psychoanalysis.

• John Watson: Behaviorism.

• B.F. Skinner: Reinforced behaviorism.

• Max Wertheimer: Gestalt psychology.

• Charles Darwin: Evolutionary influence on psychology.

Key Moments:

1600s: Scientific Revolution

• Influence of Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton on systematic study through observation and evidence.

1600s: Philosophical Foundations

• René Descartes: Mind-body dualism.

• John Locke: "Tabula rasa" (blank slate) concept.

1859: Charles Darwin publishes The Origin of Species

• Theory of Evolution and natural selection begin influencing psychological thought.

1879: Wilhelm Wundt established the first psychology laboratory

• Marks the official birth of psychology as a scientific discipline.

Late 1800s: Structuralism (Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener)

• Focus on analyzing the structure of conscious experiences through introspection.

Late 1800s: Functionalism (William James)

• Conscious thoughts serve a purpose for adaptation and survival.

Early 1900s: Sigmund Freud develops Psychoanalytic Theory

• Emphasizes the role of the unconscious in influencing behavior.

1913: John Watson introduces Behaviorism

• Argues for the study of only observable behavior, excluding mental processes.

1930s-1950s: B.F. Skinner expands on behaviorism

• Develops operant conditioning and reinforcement theories.

Early 1900s: Max Wertheimer establishes Gestalt Psychology

• Asserts that the whole of conscious experience is greater than the sum of its parts.

Mid-1900s: Growth of modern approaches to psychology:

• Biological/Neuroscience Approach: Focuses on brain functions and biology.

• Evolutionary Approach: Builds on Darwin’s ideas to explain behavior through adaptation.

• Psychodynamic Approach: Expands on Freud’s theory of unconscious influences.

• Cognitive Approach: Studies mental processes like perception, memory, and decision-making.

• Humanistic Approach: Emphasizes personal growth and individual potential.

• Sociocultural Approach: Investigates the impact of society and culture on behavior.

The difference between research and applied psychology, and how they relate to each other:

• Research psychologists identify the information applied psychologists use to help people.

For each of the modern approaches/theories/perspectives of psychology: what defines it, what makes it different from the others?

Know any names that are associated with each approach

Know which are represented both in our discussion of historical and modern approaches

• Biological/Neuroscience Approach: Focuses on brain functions and biology.

• Evolutionary Approach: Builds on Darwin’s ideas to explain behavior through adaptation.

• Psychodynamic Approach: Expands on Freud’s theory of unconscious influences.

• Cognitive Approach: Studies mental processes like perception, memory, and decision-making.

• Humanistic Approach: Emphasizes personal growth and individual potential.

• Sociocultural Approach: Investigates the impact of society and culture on behavior.

5 questions for critical thinking

1. What am I being asked to believe or accept?

2. What evidence supports this position?

   1. Is the evidence numerous and from a varied sources and diverse populations?

3. Is there any other way that this data could be interpreted?

   1. Is there any other reason for the result we are seeing?

4. What other evidence would I need to evaluate these alternatives?

   1. What more information would be helpful to have?

5. What are the most reasonable conclusions?

Thinking like a scientist: elements of scientific inquiry, the scientific method, the theory data cycle

• Objectivity

• Systematic observation

• Defining behavior precisely (operational definition)

• Repeatable evidence

The Scientific Method:

• Observe/ Identify the problem -> Ask a question -> Predict/ hypothesize -> Collect + Analyze data -> Draw Conclusions

Theory-Data Cycle:

• Theory -> research questions -> research design -> hypothesis -> data

The difference between descriptive and experimental research, what methods/types of studies fall under each, the upsides and downsides of each of those

• Descriptive research: Am I looking to report what is happening naturally without my influence?

  • goal is to describe behavior

    • observation

    • case studies

    • surveys/questionnaires

    • interviews

    • correlational research

• Experimental research: Am I looking to see what happens under different conditions that I can influence?

  • goal is to establish the causes and effects of behavior

    • conditions

    • controls

    • compare outcomes

All terms we learned when covering correlational research

• Variable: anything that you can observe or measure

• Range: -1 to +1

• Sign (positive or negative):

  • Positive (same direction) or negative (opposite direction)

• Magnitude (size of number):

  • zero: no relation

  • 1 or -1: perfect relation

  • closer to either end: stronger, closer to middle: weaker

• Third Variable Problem: simultaneous influence of a third (unmeasured) factor on the two variables under study.

• Advantages of Correlational Research: can collect data from a large number of participants

• Disadvantages of Correlational Research: cannot prove that one variable causes a change in another

All terms we learned when covering experimental research

• The three C’s (conditions, controls, and compare outcomes)

• Independent variable: what you manipulate, what conditions you set

• Dependent variable: what you measure (the outcome variable)

  • Goal: to establish the causes and effects of behavior

Biases and controls in research

• Experimenter bias: when a researcher unintentionally influences participants to respond in a particular way

• Confirmation bias: the tendency to interpret evidence as supporting one’s prior beliefs

  • tendency to only look for evidence that supports one's beliefs (and ignore the other evidence)

• Sampling bias: choosing people to participate in a study in ways that might influence the results

• Placebo effect: participants expectations influence their performance in a study

• Self-fulfilling prophecy: if we believe something about ourselves,(or that someone else believes something about us) then we act to fulfill that expectation

• Double-Blind Procedure: make the experimenter and the participants unaware of who is getting the treatment and the control condition

• Placebo: giving a “fake” treatment in order that the participants (and the experimenter) don't know who actually gets the treatment

• Random Sampling: choosing people for a study in ways that minimize sampling bias; ensure that people and their characteristics are more evenly distributed across experimental and control groups.

Difference between descriptive and inferential statistics

Meaning of statistical significance

• Statistical Significance: a mathematical calculation that determines how likely that the observed results are likely to be repeated vs due to chance

5 ethical principles guiding psychologists

1. Beneficence and nonmaleficence

   1. take precaution to ensure the safety and well being of all of the participants

2. Fidelity and Responsibility

   1. promote an atmosphere of trust, serve the best interests, and accept responsibility for their choices

3. Integrity

   1. promote accuracy, honesty and truthfulness

   2. Do not cheat or steal

4. Justice

   1. Does the research treat all people fairly?

   2. Be aware of biases

5. Respect for People's Rights and Dignity

   1. Informed consent