Quiz 3 review

Asian American Women and Second Generation

1. Asian American immigration paths before 1965 as ‘gendered routes’:
   Immigration paths before 1965 were "gendered" because they were shaped by gendered expectations and societal roles. Men were typically the primary immigrants, often arriving as laborers or sojourners, while women were either excluded or limited in migration opportunities. For example, Chinese women were often discouraged from migrating due to racial and gendered restrictions, including the Chinese Exclusion Act, which specifically targeted Chinese women, fearing they might bring more Chinese immigrants. The gendered nature of these immigration routes led to the creation of a male-dominated immigrant community, with women arriving in limited numbers, often through arranged marriages or as "picture brides" in the case of Japanese Americans.

2. Factors discouraging women from migrating to the U.S.:
   Several factors discouraged women from migrating to the U.S. before 1965. These included restrictive immigration laws, such as the Chinese Exclusion Act (1882), which severely limited the number of Chinese women who could immigrate. Additionally, societal and family expectations in Asian countries often limited women's mobility, and in many cases, women were expected to remain in their home countries to maintain family structures and economic stability. Furthermore, the costs and risks associated with international migration were often prohibitive for women.

3. Three types of Chinese women who migrated to the U.S. West:

   • Laboring women: A small number of Chinese women, often from poor backgrounds, were brought over to work in domestic service or as prostitutes, following the Page Act of 1875, which restricted the migration of Chinese women.

   • Picture brides: These women came to the U.S. through arranged marriages facilitated by photographs. This was a common method of bringing women from Japan, Korea, and China in the early 20th century, particularly to help men transition from sojourners to settlers.

   • Elite women: Some educated or elite Chinese women were able to migrate to join their husbands or for educational opportunities, but this group was very small due to the restrictive immigration laws and social expectations of the time.

4. Impact of American Progressive reformers on Chinese women in the West:
   Progressive reformers in the U.S. pushed for social reform and tried to improve the living conditions of Chinese women in the West, particularly in Chinatowns. These reformers often advocated for better health, educational, and housing conditions, and sought to eliminate prostitution among Chinese women by providing them with social services and opportunities for better livelihoods. However, these efforts were also rooted in racialized views that saw Chinese women as victims in need of "rescue."

5. Impact of the picture-bride system on Japanese migration:
   The picture-bride system allowed Japanese men to bring wives from Japan, which had a profound impact on transforming Japanese American communities. Prior to this system, many Japanese immigrants were "sojourners" who intended to return to Japan after making money. The arrival of wives and families through the picture-bride system encouraged Japanese men to settle permanently in the U.S., shifting their status from temporary migrants to permanent settlers. This also contributed to the establishment of Japanese American communities in the U.S.

6. Reasons for the abolishment of the picture-bride passport by 1920:
   The picture-bride system was abolished in 1920 primarily due to growing anti-Asian sentiment and fears about the "threat" of Japanese immigration. As the Japanese population in the U.S. grew, particularly in California, nativist groups and lawmakers became increasingly hostile toward further immigration. In response to these pressures, the U.S. government enacted more restrictive immigration laws, including limiting the entry of Japanese brides and tightening regulations on family migration.

7. Reflection of Issei attitude toward their Nisei children as more American:
   The two events reflecting the Issei’s view of their Nisei children as more American were:

   • The internment during WWII: Issei parents, particularly those who had been born in Japan and were not citizens, saw their children, the Nisei, as being more American in terms of citizenship and identity, which led to confusion and frustration among the older generation when the Nisei were also interned during WWII.

   • Post-war economic integration: After the war, many Issei parents saw the success of their Nisei children in American schools and businesses as proof of their full assimilation into American society, further reinforcing the belief that the next generation was more American than Japanese.

Japanese Internment During World War II

1. Internment as a continuous event in Asian American history:
   The internment of Japanese Americans during WWII can be seen as a continuation of a broader history of racial discrimination and exclusion of Asian immigrants. Since the late 19th century, laws and policies had been shaped by racial prejudice, including the Chinese Exclusion Act and the restriction of Japanese immigration. The internment followed this long history of systemic racism, with Japanese Americans being treated as a threat purely due to their racial background rather than any individual actions.

2. Why Japanese Americans didn’t protest en masse:
   Japanese Americans did not protest en masse with the issuance of Executive Order 9066 due to a combination of factors, including a lack of political power, fear of further government retribution, and the pervasive belief in loyalty to the U.S. government. Many also feared that resistance would worsen their situation or lead to more drastic measures.

3. The politics of incarceration:
   "The politics of incarceration" refers to the way the U.S. government justified the internment of Japanese Americans by framing it as a military necessity during WWII, despite the lack of evidence supporting the need for such measures. The U.S. state managed the dilemma by framing the internment as a temporary security measure, while also attempting to suppress dissent and create a narrative of national loyalty.

4. Life in the internment camps:
   Life in the internment camps was marked by overcrowded and harsh conditions. Families lived in poorly constructed barracks, and people were subjected to constant surveillance. Many faced loss of property, livelihood, and freedom. However, some internees created a semblance of normalcy, setting up schools, religious services, and community organizations within the camps.

5. Internment as based on race, not military necessity:
   While the U.S. government justified Japanese internment as a "military necessity," it can be argued that the actual reason was racial distrust. The government viewed Japanese Americans as "alien" and "untrustworthy" due to their racial background, not because of any evidence of disloyalty. The internment reflected longstanding racial prejudice and xenophobia against Asians.

6. Demonstrations of loyalty by Japanese Americans:
   Japanese Americans demonstrated their loyalty during WWII through various means, including military service. Many volunteered for the U.S. military, and the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, composed mainly of Japanese Americans, became one of the most decorated units in U.S. military history. Additionally, many Japanese Americans worked in war-related industries to support the U.S. war effort.

Cold War and Asian Americans

1. Post-WW2 American concerns and the Bretton Woods Agreement:
   After WWII, American planners were concerned about global stability and the spread of communism. The perceived solutions included rebuilding war-torn Europe and Asia through financial support and creating institutions like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank to prevent economic instability. The Bretton Woods Agreement, which established the IMF and the World Bank, aimed to stabilize global economies and promote free-market capitalism as a counter to the spread of communism.

2. Importance of the Third World in Cold War geopolitics:
   The Third World was crucial in the Cold War rivalry because it was a battleground for influence between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. Both superpowers sought to align Third World countries with their respective ideologies. This is significant for Asian American history because the U.S. government began emphasizing anti-communism and liberal democracy in its treatment of Asians, influencing policies toward Asian immigrants and Asian Americans.

3. Soviet propaganda and racial relations:
   Soviet propaganda criticized American racial segregation and discrimination, forcing the U.S. to reexamine its racial policies. As part of its Cold War strategy to present itself as a beacon of freedom, the U.S. had to address racial injustices, leading to some civil rights reforms and a shift in American racial rhetoric, including the promotion of "racial liberalism."

4. Reversal of the "good" vs "bad" Asians viewpoint:
   During WWII, the U.S. government framed Japanese Americans as "enemy aliens," but during the Cold War, especially after Japan’s defeat, the U.S. recast Japanese Americans as loyal citizens. Chinese Americans, who were previously seen as racially inferior, were now promoted as part of the "model minority" narrative, emphasizing their supposed cultural compatibility with American values.

5. The 1952 McCarren-Walter Immigration Act:
   The 1952 Immigration Act was both positive and negative for Asian Americans. It allowed a limited number of Asian immigrants to enter the U.S. under the preference system, but it still imposed racial quotas that limited immigration from Asia. It also allowed for naturalization for some Asian immigrants, but the law still maintained racial exclusions.

6. Factors leading to the 1965 Immigration Act:
   The 1965 Immigration Act was influenced by the Civil Rights Movement, the growing global focus on racial equality, and the geopolitical needs of the U.S. during the Cold War. The law eliminated racial quotas and emphasized family reunification, which facilitated greater immigration from Asia

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