Chapter 1

The purpose of your textbook is about learning the link between the brain and the behavior. Ask—how does the brain—how is it organized that it is able to produce such behavior?

• Now the brain is of course an object, it remains, a behavior is something you observe, kit happens and then it doesn’t.

• The critical question of this whole textbook really is—How does the brain produce behavior? This is a major scientific question.

• Understanding our brain can help us understand some major differences such as sexual orientation, religious and cultural.

Behavioural disorders—unsurprisingly can be cured if we increase our understanding of the brain (2000 disorders). It is also easier to understand the changes we experience—physical, mental and emotional as we age.

And of course the study of the brain leads to an understanding of diversity and thus reduce stigma and break down social barriers. Neuroscience although not free of its own biases, is critical to combating stereotypes and misconceptions.

The brain as you know is a part of the nervous system (the brain and spinal cord together make up the central nervous system). Like the rest of our body, the nervous system is composed of bunch of cells, which are called neurons (they are involves in info. processing). The other half of the cells in the nervous system are known as glial cells and they support the function of the neurons.

• Neurons send electrical and chemicals signals to communicate with one another.

• Not only with other neurons but with sensory receptors in skin, muscles and internal organs as well

• Most of the interconnections between the brain and body are made through the spinal cord.

• The brain and the spinal cord make the central nervous system.

• Now all process that go on outside/beyond the brain and spinal cord are called peripheral nervous system.

Now the human brain has MANY structures but we’ll focus in two major divisions—Cerebrum (forebrain) has two halves called hemispheres. Again the forebrain has several structures but the major one in the human brain is the neocortex—or cortex for short which is responsible for our conscious behavior.

Now the brainstem is what’s responsible for the life-sustaining, unconscious behavior. The cerebellum is a part of our brainstem is meant for learning and coordinating our movements. Note that our unconscious and conscious behaviors as separate as they may seem are not that different but are intertwined.

Brain = the self

• Embodied behavior is a theory that proposes that our thoughts and our movements cannot be separated.

• This man, called Edmond Jacobson says that even when we are not moving at all we still make some subliminal movements related to our thoughts.

• Students in a study that made them lose all sensory, and vision reported it as deeply uncomfortable.

• However Consciousness can persist in the absence of most overt movements.

Now the behavioral pattern of animals varies a lot from humans. Their behavior is largely heredity meaning they preform behavior with little or no previous experience. Animals can however learn. The learning part depend on the brain’s plasticity.

TOP - Innate and fixed behaviors

BOTTOM - Learned behaviors

Mentalism, dualism and materialism. (They are theories)

In the current world we abide by the materialism theory.

The psyche in your textbook is described as something that does exactly what a brain does—consciousness, emotion, perception but does not have a physical form.

The belief that one’s psyche (mind) is responsible for behavior is called mentalism.

And now another that two entities—a material body and a nonmaterial mind is known as dualism. This theory had a mind-body problem.

Look into your textbook for more notes on genetics and how they are passed down.

It was proposed that as a result of learning small groups of neurons forge new connections with on another to form a cell assembly which is the substrate for a memory.

What we can do is compare the brain and behavioral characteristics of humans and related animals and by comparing their genes, however, scientists can reconstruct lineages based on common ancestors.

It is to be noted that brain cells and brain evolved only recently.

• A nervous system is not essential for life. (plants/bacteria)

• Brain cells and muscles evolved together, enabling animals to move.

• The nervous system in jellyfish and sea anemones is quite simple.

• Nerve Net = just received sensory info, and connects to other neurons that move muscles.

• Advanced/ more complex brains = more organized and features bilateral symmetry.

• Segmentation (?)

• Ganglia (?)

• Chordates—animals with a brain and spinal cord.

Primates have the largest brains, and the brain size of theirs is unique to their behavioral traits. Humans are members of the great ape family.

Hominins—are primates that walk upright.

Chatgpt Summery:

1. Nervous System Overview

• Central Nervous System (CNS): Includes the brain and spinal cord. Responsible for core processing and control.

  • Cerebrum: Handles higher-order functions like thinking, emotions, voluntary movements, memory, and perception.

  • Brainstem: Controls essential life functions such as breathing and heartbeat.

  • Cerebellum: Responsible for balance and coordination.

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): All nerves outside the CNS that connect the brain and spinal cord to the body.

Key Tip: CNS = “Core” control, PNS = “Branches” connecting to the rest of the body.

2. Behavior

• Definition: Patterns in time that include movements, vocalizations, and thinking.

• Two Types of Behavior:

  1. Innate (Inherited): Reflexes or fixed behaviors we’re born with (e.g., blinking, sucking reflex).

  2. Learned: Acquired through experience and environment (e.g., playing an instrument).

• Combination: Most behaviors mix innate and learned elements (e.g., speaking a language involves both).