Q2: GLOBAL CHALLENGES

·  Liberalist view on cooperation:
Liberalists believe individuals and states are rational and capable of cooperation. Diplomacy and economic interdependence create mutually beneficial relationships, reducing the likelihood of conflict.

·  Economic interdependence and conflict:
When states rely on each other economically, the cost of war increases, making peaceful resolution of disputes more desirable as both sides have stakes in maintaining stability.

·  Marxist view on human rationality and cooperation:
Marxism argues that human behavior is driven by class struggle rather than individual rationality or cooperation, where the economic system shapes people's interests and decisions.

·  Liberalist view on institutions reducing war:
Liberalists believe institutions, such as international organizations, foster cooperation and create frameworks that make war less likely by addressing shared concerns and goals between states.

·  Democratic peace theory:
The theory posits that democracies are less likely to go to war with each other because of common values, political structures, and norms that promote peaceful conflict resolution.

·  Constructivist theory:
Constructivists argue that state behavior is shaped by social structures, including shared beliefs, norms, and identities, rather than being solely determined by material interests.

·  State interest:
State interest refers to the strategic, political, and economic objectives that a state pursues in the international arena, often tied to security, prosperity, and maintaining power.

·  Dependency theory:
Dependency theory suggests that the global economic system is exploitative, with wealthy (first-world) nations extracting cheap resources from poorer (third-world) nations, creating a cycle of inequality and underdevelopment.

·  Realist, liberalist, and constructivist perspectives on Russia-Ukraine 2014:

• Realists: View the conflict as a power struggle for regional dominance and security concerns.

• Liberals: Suggest that institutions failed to prevent the conflict due to lack of effective diplomacy and international cooperation.

• Constructivists: Focus on historical identity and norms, such as Russia's desire to maintain influence over Ukraine and perceptions of sovereignty.

·  Power polarity:
The distribution of power among states can be unipolar (one dominant power), multipolar (multiple powers), bipolar (two major powers), or nonpolar (no dominant powers), each impacting global stability and decision-making.

·  Balance of power:
The concept of balance of power is to prevent any single state from becoming overwhelmingly dominant, maintaining stability in international relations by ensuring no one actor becomes too powerful.

·  International relations perspective on role-based government:
Liberalism believes that states and their governments are part of a larger international system where institutions and norms regulate state behavior, and international organizations play a significant role in shaping policies.

·  Anarchy in constructivism:
For constructivists, anarchy does not determine state behavior directly; instead, the way states interpret and act within an anarchic system is shaped by their identities, norms, and beliefs.

·  Liberals and pluralism:
Liberalism views states as pluralist entities influenced by various actors (such as NGOs, interest groups, and businesses), with these actors competing to shape state policies, including foreign policy.

·  Dictators vs. democratic leaders:
Dictators often face fewer institutional constraints on their power, allowing for faster decision-making, while democratic leaders are held accountable by institutions, checks and balances, and public opinion.

·  Cognitive consistency in decision-making:
Cognitive consistency refers to the tendency of leaders to stick to their preconceived beliefs and avoid considering opposing viewpoints, which can lead to poor decision-making and a failure to adapt to changing circumstances.

·  Mirror imaging:
Mirror imaging is the assumption that other states or leaders share similar thoughts, beliefs, and intentions as one's own. This misperception led to tensions and misunderstandings during the Cold War, particularly between the U.S. and the Soviet Union.

Realism-Power shifts, war, military dominance (Example: Cold War, WWI, WWII)

Liberalism-Economic growth, institutions, trade (Example: WTO, UN, global finance)

Constructivism- Ideas, norms, social movements (Example: Decolonization, human rights)