TOPIC 7.2 IMPERIALISM DEBATES 🛫

What were the main arguments for and against American imperialism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries?

Proponents of imperialism argued:

• Domestic Turmoil (Jingoes)

• Competetive Impulse

Berlin Conference and Far East China eyed by Brit and America didntt want to be left out of potential markets

• Exceptionalism and Manifest Destiny

• Racial Theories

Charles Darwins theory of evolution or “survival of the fittest,” aplied to strong and weak nations.r

• Naval Power (Mahans book on The Influence of Sea Power…)

• Economic Justification

quest for raw matericals by manufacturers and markets due to Second Industrial Revolution

Opponents of imperialism argued:

• Anti-Imperialist League

• Racial Theories (whit esupremacy)

• Self- Determination and Non-Intervention

that it would expand American influence and markets, provide new resources and territories, and promote American values and civilization. Opponents argued that it violated American principles of self-determination and non-intervention, risked entangling the US in foreign conflicts, and exploited and oppressed colonized peoples.

Hawaii Takeover/ Pearl Harbor:

Why

US went to Hawaii due to rapid growth of sugar plantations. They alse established Pearl Harbor as a naval port and to deny it to other hostile European powers.

How

Sponsored a series of rebellions and coups to overthrow the Hawaiian governmrnt bc of taxes and tarrifs that cut into American/Birtish-born sugar plantation owners. Queen Liliuokalani was the last sovereign of Hawaii.

TOPIC 7.3 THE SPANISH AMERICAN WAR ⚠⛑

What were the causes and effects of the Spanish-American War, and how did it impact the relationships between Spain, the United States, and the former Spanish colonies?

(a) CONTEXT:

• Americans moved to Cuba to establish large sugar plantations

• Native Cubans were irritataed ath the growing presence of American and SPANISH foreigners who a__massed more fortune__s while natives toiled on the sugar plantations.

• Cuban Interventionlaitst waged gureilla warfare againsed SPANISH TROOPS: their goal was to damage ecomony of the island (cuba)

• Genereal Valeriano Weyler decided to crush the cuban native rebellion using reconcentrado (centers) where cuban natives were gathered in central locations and put under direct spanish control, TO PREVENT INSURRECTION.

This was like concentratiion camps with cruel and unusual punishment. Many died to poor food and unsanitary conditions

• YELLOW JOURNALISM caputred and sensationalized the curelties done by Weyler, being called the “Butcher” Weyler.

Randolph HEARST and Joseph PULITZER were popular yellow journalists who would radically alter the truth of stories about Cuba in efforts to sell more papers.

• Yellow journalism caused many American and CUban Immigrants to be concerned about the events in Cuba, cruel?

(b) Sinking of the USS Maine:

• Yellow Journalism already had American on edge on whether to intervene in Spain and Cuban affairs,

… but this event made war inevitable in the eyes of Americans.

USS Maine exploded in Havana Cuba on Feburary 15th 1898

• The ship was there to provide protection and escape for the Americans currently living on the Island and dealing with the effects of Cuban Spanish conflicts.

• The explosion killed 260 American Sailors (angry americans)

YELLOW JOURNALISM STRIKES:

• Hearst and Pulitzer were quick to blame the Spanish__ for the intentional bombing of the ship, further fanning the flamess of war.

Remember the Maine! To hell with Spain! ---- cried Americans to push President Mckinley to declare war with Spain.

• President McKinley

reluctant to issue war decree without some caveat, my guess is that he didn’t want to seen a bad guy in general.

SO he adds the TELLER AMENDMENT to the declaration of war:

to assure Cuba that they would have their independence once the war was over.

(c) War:

• Spanish- American war begun, due to the Spanish blame on the USS Maine explosion, on April 21st 1898 but on the Phillipines spanish colony not cuba

• Commodore Dewey sent to Manila BAy and opened fire on MAy 1st but the battle was shortlived cause US NAvy wiped out SPanish fleet in matter of Hours.

• Emilio Aguinaldo assisted Americans in the takinf of Manila (A fillipinoo revolutionary)

• Tropical diseases, American troop Inexperience made the fihgt in Cuba much harder. MOST DEATHS DUE TO DISEASE. Like 10 percent was actual combat.

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• After the US VIctory in Cuba on July 1st, USA invaded the spanish colony of Puerto Rico. This is when the Spanish gave up and signed a cease fire in August 1898.

THE RESULTING PEACE TREATY:

• Treaty of Paris of 1898----- gave the USA Guam and Puerto Rico, Moreover $20 Million paid to Spain for the Phillipines.

• THUS THIS WAR WAS A KEY TURNING POINT, marking the emergenge of the United States as a WORLD Power.

(d) Insular Cases:

• Citizens living in the new conquered territories (Guam, Phillipines, Puerto Rico) questioned their constititional rigthts to the UN Supreme Corut cases

• 1901 Insular Cases ruled that the constitution and its protections did not follow the flag.

Basically, you werre not guaranteed American rights and privilages if you lived in the newly conquered territories.

• Instead it was up to Congress to decide the rights of the people in the territories (Guam, Phillipines, Puerto Rico)

(e) Cuba:

• As Cuba tries to draft their constitution, the USA ignores the Teller Amendment that promised Cuba their independence after the war.

• The USA issued the Platt Amendment in 1903 that Cubans had to incorporate into their new constitition.

PLATT PROVISIONS:

1. Cuba had to have all treaties approved by the United States

2. The United States had the right to interfere in Cuban affairs both politically and militarily

3. The United States would be given access to naval bases on the island.

Esentially, cubans had not really gained their independence from Spain but rather was now being controlled by the USA.

(2) Philippine-American War:

USA then turned its attention to other parts of the world,* ASIA in particular.

• Buisness leaders` look to `commercial possibilites` in Asia like selling oil for the lamps of China`

• Missionary Societies` saw the chance to `spread christianity` to Asia.`

• THE PHILIPPINES promised to be a useful base for all the activities above….

• …BUT The Filliponoes under the lead of the once-American ally, Emilio Aguinaldo, they *revolted* against American Presense.

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• *Guerilla warfare* broke out between Filippinoo revolutionaries and Americans on the islands in 1899. Was the start of a three year war.

• Americans won when Aguinaldo and his fighters were subdued and the leader was caputred.

• In the end there was *4,300 American deaths* and a WHOPING *20.000 Philippine Deaths* to crush their rebellion. THEY didn’t get their independence until July 4th 1946.

PUERTO RICO:

• Had been acquired to serve as a US outpost.

• *Foraker Act* established a civil givernment on the island on April12th 1900

• Residents were not declared US citizens, however until the 1917 Jones Act.

• *1952* is when Puerto Rico becomes a commonwealth with its own constitution and elected officials.

(3) Open Door Policy:

• China was another area of interest for Americans, especially investors.

• Japan and European nations had already created spheres of influence in China where they basically controlled the economic dealings in the specific region.

• Wanting to get in on the China action, Secretary of State John Hay announced the Open Door Policy.

Open Door Policy:

• China would be open and free to trade equally with any nation

• This policy was popular in the USA but not so much with China. IT waas denounced and resisted.

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• 1900, a young group of chinese nationalists revolt against the Open Door Policy and foreign intervention.

BOXER REBELLION:

• Sought to remove all foreigners from China by force.

• But a multinatonal force, including the US was sent to Peking and ended the rebellion.

(4) Roosevelt and Big Stick Diplomacy:

(a) CONTEXT:

• In 1901, President McKinley was fatally shot by an anarchinst just months after his second inarguration as president.

• Vice president, young expantionalist THEODORE ROOSEVELT became the president after his death.

• Roosevelt charecterized his foreign policy into a motto:

“speak softly and carry a big stick,” thus leading his aggressive foreign policy to be called “Big Stick Diplomacy.”

• He led the USA to act boldy and decisivley in a numebr of situations to build a US WORLD POWER REPUTATION.

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(b) Panama Canal

• Roosevelts first Bold Move in Panama

• USA desired a canal through Central America to connect the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans due to the stretch from Puerto Rico in carribeana dnthe Philippines in the Pacific.

• Columbia would not allow USA to build canal cause it had comtrol over Panama where the USA wanted to build tthe canal.

• Because Coliumbia said no, USA helped organize a Panamanian rebellion against Columbia with French aid.

• After that. Panama govt quickly signed an agreement to allow USA to build the canal.

PANAMA CANAL:

• Challange to build in swampy mosquito filled land where 5,600 workers died from accidents and disease.

• Construction done in 1914 and thus connected Atlanic and Pacific Oceans

(c) Roosevelt Corollary:

• Roosevelts imperilaist aims, try to protect Velezuela from European intervemtion fron debt collection:

• Amended the Monroe Doctrine with the Roosevelt Corollary:

USA comes to financial aid of and Latin Americsn nation.

• Esentially was a way for the USA to from control over LAatin America under the guise of protecting the Domincan Republic and Cuba from political chaos.

--Taft and Wilson:

(d) Taft 1909-1913:

• President Taft used a different approach to foreign relations.

• “dollar diplomacy” encouraged American businesses to send their dollars to foreign countries, such as those in Latin America, to weaken European bonds and strengthen ties with the United States.

• But when these American investments were endangereed, Taft would send US troops to invade Latin America to protect American interests

These actions alienated the US from latin america

(e) Wilson (1913-1921):

• President Wilson saw Imperialism as immoral YET

• YET he believd in the superiority of the American Democracy and felt it was his duty to spread that ideal to natios under the threat of totalitarianiam

• known as moral diplomacy

• He used these tactics to invade Nicaragua. Dominican Republuc and purchased the Virgin Isnalds.

• Wilson also intervened in the Mexican Revolution to capture the revolutionary Pancho Villa after he had killed Americans in Mexico and New Mexico.

TOPIC 7.4 PROGRESSIVES 📈 -amsco done

WORK IN PROGRESS‼️‼️

(1) The Progressive Movement:

(2) Muckrakers: ills of society

(3) Elections and Voter Participation:

1. (A) AUSTRALIAN (SECRET) BALLOT:

2. (B) DIRECT PRIMARIES:

3. (C) DIRECT ELECTION of U.S. SENATORS:

4. (D) INITIATIVE, REFERENDUM, RECALL:

(a) Australian (Secret Ballot)

(b) Direct Primaries/ who to vote for president

(c) Direct Election of U.S. Senators

(d) Iniciative, Referendum, Recall

More Power to the people

Iniciative: People sign a doc for ex to have smething changed

refrendum:

(4) Woman and the Progressives:→→→→→

(a) Women’s Clubs

(b) Suffrage

(5) National Progressives:→→→→→→→→→

(a) Context

(b) Teddy Roosevelt

i The Accidental President

ii The Square Deal

iii Legislative Leadership

iv Conservation

(c) William Howard Taft

(d) Woodrow Wilson

(6) Progressive Divisions:

TOPIC 7.5 WORLD WAR I MILITARY & DIPLOMACY 📜⚔⚔️

(1) European Context:

• By 1914, Euro major powers were organized in two great competing alliances:

“Triple Entente” (Britain, France, and Russia) ALLIES

“Triple Alliance” (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy). CENTRAL

• Chief rivalry was between Great Britain and Germany

• On June 28, 1914 The Archduke Franz Ferdinand was assasinated in Sarajevo by the black hand a serbian nationalist group

• Local controvey quickly escalated through complex alliances, then in August 3, 1914, Germany declared war on both Russia and France and had invaded Belgium.

• Then because of alliance with France, Britian declared war on Germany

• BY early 1915 all Euro continnt was in the major war

(2) Wilson & Road to War→→→→

(a) Inicial Neutrality

• In 1914, President Wilson hoped to remian neutral in order to settle the conflict

  **“**impartial in thought as well as deed.”

• Wilson hoped that neutrality would help settle the conflict.

• Thus, the Americans’ traditional policy of Washingtons isolationism and neutrality was invoked.

• BUT neutrality was unsustainable. MOST Americans sympathized with Britian due to skillful exaggeration by British propogandists of German.

The situation quickly grew more complicated….

(b) Blockade

• England made an effective blockade on shipments headed to Germany, specificaly boats coming from the USA.

• Brisish impounded and confiscated American Ships.

• BUT THE BRIT PAID FOR THE CARGO, so the USA didnt take action against the blockade.

• Americans then tacitly accepted the blockade of Germany and continued trading with Britian

• By 1915, the USA gradually turned into the aresenal of the Allies, despite being neutral.

(c) U-boats and The Lusitania

• Germans began doing submarine warfare, considered barbaric in American eyes.

• Unable to challenge British domination on the ocean’s surface, the Germans announced early in 1915 that they would sink enemy vessels on sight.

• Months later on May 7th 1915: German U-boat sank passenger liner Lucitania without warning

• This lead to the deats of 1,198 people, 128 Americans

• The ship was carrying both passengers and munitions, but most Americans considered the attack an unprovoked act on civilians.

• The sinking of the Lusitania, and the bad publicity it generated, led the Germans to cease submarine warfare for a while.

• Britain made steady gains, however, and as the U-boats were Germany’s most effective weapon, the Germans resumed their use.

• Germany sank another passenger liner, the Arabic. In response, Wilson, while still maintaining neutrality, asked Congress to put the military into a state of preparedness for war, just in case.

• POPULAR support to enter war ws beginng to grow.

(d) Zimmerman Telegram

• Then, in early 1917, the British intercepted a telegram from German Foreign Minister Zimmermann to the German ambassador to Mexico

• The Zimmerman Telegram outlined a German plan to keep the United States out of the European war.

• stated that if Mexico were to declare war on the United States, Germany would provide Mexico help in regaining the lands lost in the Mexican War. They als offered Japan this too

• Published in newspapers around the country, the telegram convinced many Americans that Germany was trying to take over the world.

• APRIL 2, 1917, two weeks after Germany sank U-boats, Congress and Wilson asked for a declaation of war.

(3) American at WAR:

• Euro Armies on both sides of war tired when Wilson entered the War

• The Allies looked desperately to the USA for help in breaking the stalemate

• Within weeks of joining the war, the USA began tippng the stalemate

• America allied with British to destroy German u-boats and put antisubmarine mines in the North Sea

• Dramatic Resuts, TONS OF ALLIED SHIP sinks

• Americans knew quickly that they needed to send troops to help, not just naval assistance.

Wilson passied the Selective Service Act despite protests in May, 1917, drating nearly 3 million men into the army.

• Eight months later, November 11, 1918, more than 4 years after the was had begun, the World War ended with Germany’s surrender.

(4) AFTERMATH of WAR→→→→→

(a) Fourteen Points & League of Nations

• American participation in the war tipped the balance in the Allies’ favor, and two years after America’s entry, the Germans were ready to negotiate a peace treaty.

• Wilson wanted the war treaty to be guided by his Fourteen Points, his plan for world peace delivered to Congress in January of 1918, before the end of the war.

The Fourteen Points called for…

1. free trade through lower tariffs and freedom of the seas

2. a reduction of arms supplies on all sides

3. the promotion of self-determination, both in Europe and overseas—in other words, the end of colonialism.

• The plan also called for creating the League of Nations for international cooperation

• Wilson’s Fourteen Points served as a basis for __initial negotiation__s, but the negotiations soon took a different direction…

(b) TREATY of Versailles

• European Allies wated a peace settlement that would PUNISH GERMANY, and thats what they got

• Under Treaty of Versailles, Germany forced to cede German and colonial territories, to disarm, to pay huge reparations, and admit total fault for the war, despite othe nations’ role in starting it.

• Most historians agree tht Germanys humiliation and economic ruin is was set the stage for WWII

• Much of Wilsons 14 Point plan was disguarded, Treaty of Versailles did create a League of Nations.

(c) U.S. Debate

• Wilson hoped that the League would ultimately remedy the peace settlement’s many flaws, but when he returned home, a rude surprise awaited him.

Senate split into three gruops due to Article X of the Leagues covenant:

(curtailed Americas ability to act independently in foreign affairs, specifically Congress’ power to declare war.)

“respect and preserve as __against __external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all Members.”

1. Democrats:

• Sided with Wilson and were willing to accept Americas enterance int the League of Nations

1. Irreconcilables:

• A group of Republicans who were totally opposed to the League

1. Reservationists:

• Group of Republicans totally oposed to the League lead by Henry Cabot Lodge, Wilson’s political nemesis.

• They wanted amendments/changes added before they would approve

• Wilsons refual to accept the Lodge Reservations

• Ultimately, the Democrats and Irreconcilables joined forces and defeated the treaty, which had been amended to include the changes suggested by Henry Cabot Lodge and the Reservationists.

• Thus the USA was not signing the Treaty of Versailles, nor did it ever join the League of Nations-- made by Americans to make peace in the world

• Weary of war, USA goes back to period of isolationism. Less Europe interaction which is what the League of Nations would have done.

• Wilson tries to make popular support for he treaty but has a stroke :o

TOPIC 7.6 WORLD WAR I HOME FRONT 🏡

(1) Government Power:

• The government’s power expanded greatly during the three years America was involved in WWI.

• By the time the war ended in 1918, he federal govt had gotten $32 billion dollars in war expenses, a staggeing sum at the time

• Sale of “Liberty Bonds” to raise money; were esentially loans from the Amrican people.

• $23 Billion raised by that

• At the same time, new taxes like graduate icome tax esrablished with 16th Amendment, raiseed $23 billion.

• AT the same time, govt took over the telephone, telegraph, and rail industries and a massive bureaucracy arose to handle these new responsibilities

• The War Industrry Board (WIB) created in July 1917 coordinated production of military supplies

Sought to provide supplies for the rest of the Allies as well, not just USA

• The Natoinal War Labor Board created in April 1918, served as the mediator for labor disputes

It pressures industry to meet the demandd of workers like the 8-hour workday, and in return it asked that woekers stop strikes.

(2) FREEDOM of SPEECH→→→→

(a) Sedition & Espionage

• The govt also curtailed individal civil liberties during the war

• In responce to opposition to U.S. involvment in World War, Congress passed the Espionage Act in 1917 and the Sedition Act in 1918.

The Espionage Act: ✉

• Prohibited anyone from using the US mail system to hinder the war effors or with the draft that was instituted under the Selective Services Act of 1917 when America entered thewar.

The Sedition Act: 💭

• Made it illegal to prevent war bond sales or to speak bad on the govt, flag, military, or the Constitution

• Both laws violated the spirt of the First Amenement

• In all, more than 1,500 ppl arrested in 1918 for critisizing the govermnent or the war.

(b) Schenk v. United States

• IN 1919, SupremeCourt upheld Espionage Act in three cases, the most notable being Schenck v. United States.

• Schenck was a sociaist and a critic of American Capitalism, who was arrested and convicted for violation of the Espionage Act when he printed and mailed leaflets urging men to resist the draft.

• Schenck argued draft was a violation of the 13th amenement of slavery.

• However, the amentment didnt mention slavery, but rather prohibited “involuntary servitude”.

• Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes rules that ones feedom of speech and other civil liberties were not absolute and can be scilenced ones actions posed a “clear and present danger” to others or the nation.

• In essence, you cannot yell “FIRE!” in acrowded theater if there is no fire.

• These laws soon became useful tools for the suppression of anyone who voiced unpopular ideas.

(c) Commitee on Public Information

• Govt leadrs agreethat pblic sentimet of the war was sharply divided

• Thus the gvernment used a propaganda arm, the Comittee of Public Information (CPI).

• The CPI, under Denver journalist George Creel, spuervised ddistriution of over 75 million pieces of printed material and controlled much of the info avaliable for news and magazines.

• Creel encouraged journalis to excersize “self-censorhip” when reporting war news to reduce anxieties. Most complied by covering the war as the government wished.

• CPI messages grew more sensational as war continued

• Depicted Germans as coldblooded, baby-killing, power-hungry Huns.

• During this period Americans rejected all things German like saurkraut whcih they named to “liberty cabbage.”

(3) The First Red Scare:→→→→

(a) Context/labor unun hate

• A mood of increased paranoia, hightened by the Russian Revolution, whcih placed Russian under Bolshevik control.

• Americans began to fear a communist takeover in what became known as… The First Red Scare. (red here signifies communism)

• Radical labor unions like the International Workers of the World, were branded enemies, and leaders were incarcerated.

• Eugene Debs, for example, the Socialist leader, was sent to jail for 10 years for war critisizing.

• A new govt agency, the Federal Bureau of Investigations, was created to prevnt radicals from overtake.

• J. Edgar Hoover was the head of the agency.

• Buisness assumed greater power, while unions lost power.

• Under the guise of supressing radicalism, buisnesses increased their use of strikebreakers and oter forces against labor unions.

(b) Palmer Raids

• Fears of revolution might have remained a fear only, except for the actions of a lunaic fringe.

• In April 1919, series of bombs exploded in several American Ccities. Nearly 40 bombs were intercepted.

• One slipped through and blew off hands of a Georgia senator’s maid.

• In June, another bomb destroyed *__*Atorney Mitchell Palme__r’**s house in Washington

• The bombs, along with fear of radicalism and communism, encouraged Palmer to organize a series of raids on suspected rdical groups round the country.

• In Palmer Raids in early 1920s, govt abandons all civil liberties and raided union halls, pool halls, social clubs and residencies.

• Over 10,000 arrested and about 500 immirants were eventualy deported at the end of the Palmer raids.

(4) A New Labor Force:→→→→

(a) Context

• Immigraton in the USA slowed to a trickle due to WWI. Went down to 110,000 rom an average of 1 million.

• Anti-Immigrant sentiments in USA grew despie them serving honorably in te US armed forces.

• Stories of atrocities by German soldiers, both real and exaggerated, fed hostility toward persons of German descent and led many immigrants to hide their heritage.

• Russian immigrants were feared as possible communists and anachest because of the “Red Scare”

• Growing isolationist and nativist sentiments in US lead to closing of Amrica’s “golden door”

• THe dramatic decrease in immigrants and the movement of 4 million men rom the workplace into the armed services created a labor shortage

• To meet this shortage, women, Blacm Americans, and other ethnic minorites encouraged to enter indutries and agriculture previourly dominated by men.

(b) Great Migration

• Northern business sent agents into Deep South to get workrs fro ther factories and miills.

• Southern Black Americans undertook the Great Migration to the North’s big cities when they realized the jobs the wartime created.

• During the war, more than 500,000 blacks left the South in search of work.

• Recruiting agents and news potrayed the Noth as the “land of promise” for sothern blacks suffering from the regions racist voilence and bad agriculture.

African American Chicago Dffender quote:

“To die from the bite of frost is far more glorious than at the hands of a mob.”

• By 1930, the number of BLack AMericans living in the North tripled that of 1910.

(c) Women

• Wartime also presented new opportunities for women. Although the number of women in the workforce did not increase greatly during the war, their means of employment did change.

• Many women quit domestic work and started working in factoreis with 20 percent of factory workers being women at one point.

One black woman exhnaged her live-in servant for facory work declared:

• “I’ll never work in nobody’s kitchen but my own any more. No indeed, that’s the one thing that makes me stick to this job.”

• Most women returned to their previous jobs once once veterans reurned from the war and reclaimed thei jobs

In fact, male-dominated unions encouraged women to revert to their stereotypical domestic roles after the war ended….

• “the same patriotism which induced women to enter industry during the war should induce them to vacate their positions after the war.”

(5) Red Summer

• Black men and women approached war with a sense of civic duty. Roughly 370,000 Black men were induce into the army.

• The army, however, assigned most of the black soliders to service units, reflecting a beleif that Black me were more suited for manual labor than combat duty.

• WHen the war ended, Black Americans hoped their patriotic sacrifices would have positive impact on race relations.

• Feb 17, 1919 the 369th Infantry Regiment marched up Fifth Avenue in Harlem. A spirit of determination inspired by te war surged throughout Black America.

Du Bois voiced such sentiment in the May 1919 Crisis editorial “Returning Soliders,” declaring, “We return. We return from fighting. Make way for Democracy!”

Instead, what Black Americans faced was continued discrimination and increased violence in what James Weldon Johnson dubbed…

The Red Summer (red here signifies blood)

• The return of black soliders and the ongoing Great MIgration created nationwide surge of violence in the summer of 1919, much on Black Americans.

• Altogether, twenty-five rave riots erupted in 1919.

• Chicago Riot July 27- August 3, 1919 considered Red Summers worst riot as it sparked a week of mob violence, murder, and arson.

• In October 1919, whites in Elaine, Arkansas, massacred more than 100 Black people in response to the efforts of sharecroppers to organize themselves.

• In the South, the number of reported lynchings swelled from 64 in 1918 to 83 in 1919. At least eleven of these victims were returned soldiers.

• For African Americans, the end of the war brought anything but peace.

TOPIC 7.7 1920s TECH INNOVATIONS 🚗

(1) The 1920's

(a) Context

• In pop culture, the 1920s are often remembered as era of affluence, conversatism, and cultural frivolity.

• In reality the decde was a time of dramatic social, economic, and political change.

• Econoic and social life was transformed during the 1920s

• More people than ever had the money and leisure to indulge their consumer fancies, and a growing advertising industry fueled the appetites of this expanding monied class.

• By 1922, America was hitting new peaks of prosperity every day.

• With this new prosperity, other industries arose to serve the growing middle class in its search for the rapping of affluence.

• 

(b) Pro-Business Republicans

• As thhe progressive reform era ended, many Americans became comfortable with the idea of large big buisness.

• Some of these businesses, such as department stores, ofered both convenience and reasonalbe prices.

• Others, such as the automobile indisury, offered products of coonvenience and conferred status of their owners

• The government, which had worked closely with business leaders as part of the war effort, also grew to be more pro-business during the era.

• All three of the era’s presidents —Warren Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover —pursued pro-business policies and surrounded themselves with like-minded advisors.

• In fact, govt reguatory agncies (such as the Federal Trade Commission) more often assisted business than regulated it.

• 

• Moreover, labor unions fell further out of public favor when the struck against industries that were necessary to keeping indusrial America runnig smoothly.

• Union striking for higher wages and safer work conditions in the steel, coal, and railroad industries was suppressed by federal troops.

• Supreme Court overturnd a minimin wage law or women and nullified child labor laws.

(2) Technology…

The economic boom of the 1920s was a result of many things, but one of the most important was… Technology.

(a) The Automobile

• More than anything else the automobile tranformed American society in the 1920s.

• Founding of he Ford Motor Company in 1903 revolutionized the infant industry.

• Fords reliable Model T came out in 1908 for $850.

• BY 1924 it sold for $290

• Henry Ford vowed,

“to democratize the automobile. When I’m through everybody will be able to afford one, and about everyone will have one.”

HE WAS RIGHT

• The assembly line and other innovations made automobiles one of the most important industries in the nation.

1913= 1.2 milllion registered vehicles

By 1929= 26.5 million automobiles were registeres in the U.S. This represented one car or every 5 Americns.

• Imapts of the automibile stimulated growth in related industries such as steel, rubber, glass, tool companies, oil coorps, and road construction.

• Automobiles replaced railroads as the preerred transportation, freeing Americans to travel where they wished, when they wished.

• Mobility of autos increased demand for suburban housing.

(b) The Telephone

• Industries fueled by technological advances like electronics, home applinces, fibres -- all grew dramatically.

• Telephones continue to prolierate

• By the late 1930s, there were approx 25 million telephones in he USA ne for every six people.

(3) Mass Media…

• IN the 1920s, Americans living in different cities could listen to the same radio.

• As a result, new forms of mass media like radio and cimena contributed to the spread of national culture as well as greater awareness of reional cultures.

(a) Cinema

• In 1896, a New York audience viewed the first moving-picture show.

• By 1908, there were nearly 10,000 movie theaters across the nation.

• Hollywood became the center of movie production

• The industry showed cowboy Westerns…

• …and the comedies of Mack Sennett’s Keystone Company, where slapstick comedians, Charlie Chaplin particularly, perfected their art, transorming it into a form of social criticism.

• By the mid-1930s, every city and most small towns had movie theaters, and movies became the nation’s chief form of mass entertainment.

• The addition to sound to motion pictuures beginning with first feature-length “talkie,” The Jazz Singer**.** Sound greatly enhanced film’s appeal (blackface still.)

• Movie industry grew segregated, interracial couples banned in film. BLACKFACE instead of hiring black actors

• One exception was black film producer Oscar Micheaux, who produced 39 films starring black actors shown in segregated theaters.

(b) The Radio

Radio broadcasting had spectacular growth and contributed to ecominic growth

• Early radio only used with morse code to send pulses

• However, in 1920, station WWJ in Detriot and KDKA in Pittsburgh began broadcating regularly scheduled programs.

• Once commercial broadcasting began, families flocked to buy more conventional radio sets, settling down in front of them with family to listen.

• By 1925, there were 2 million sets in American homes, and by the end of the 1920s, almost every family had one

(4) Consumerism in the 1920s

(a) Context

• In much of the 1920s, wages rose faster than living costs, so employees suudeenly had more disposable income than ever before.

• More ppl buy things not out of need, but out of convenience and pleasure.

• Middle-class families purchased electric refrigeraors, washng machines, and vaccum cleaners.

• People wore wristwatches and smoked cigarettes. Women purchased cosmetics and mass- produced fashions.

• Above all, Americans bought auomobiles.

(b)Buying on Credit

• Stores sold goods on credit more than ever.

• Now a housewife caould pt a downpament ona new stove and pay a smalll amt each month on an installment plan.

• If workers purchased more goods, factories could produce more, earn more, an employ more.

• Suddenly, the businessman went from the robber baron of the Gilded Age to the American hero of the 1920s.

(c) Advertising

• The advertising indusrty was responcible and the most aware of the emergence of consumerism.

• 1920s they used techniques pioneered by wartime propoganda. Publicists sought to identfiy products with a paticular lifestyle.

• The urban and consumer-oriented culture of the 1920s helped Americans in all regions to live their lives and perceive their world in increasingly similar ways.

TOPIC 7.8 1920’s Cultural & Political Controversies 🚩

(1) WOMEN in the NEW ERA

(a) Employment

• The consumerism of the 1920s required money, an as ppl try not to be outdone by their neighbors (Keep up with the Joneses) more women entered the working world.

• About 15 percent entered the workforce whil the vast majority of married women continued to stay home.

• The “new professional woman” was a widley publicized image in the 1920s

• In reality though, most employed women were non professional, lower-class workers.

• Middle-class women remained largely in the home.

• As they have in the past, women work in “pink collar jobs” such as school teaching or ofice-assistant work, annd continue to earn much less than men.

(b) Flappers

• Despite the persistence of traditional roles for women, a new image of American women emerged and became a symbol of the Roaring Twenties—

The flapper

• World War I, the allure of the “big city,” the right to vote, and new attitudes brought about by the ideas of Sigmund Freud (whose ideas were just beginning to circulate in the United States during the 1920s) opened up a whole new world for this new generation of emancipated women.

• They discarded…

  the corset

  layers of petticoats and anf long, dark dresses worn by their Victorian grandmothers

• In favor of…

  waistless dresses worn above the knee (shocking!)

  flesh-colored silk stocking (brought back from Paris)

  string of long beads

  a wrist full of bracelets

  and ruby red lips

• flappers risked ruining their repuation by smoking cigarettes; drinking in public (despite Prohibition); and dancing the tango, the lindy, and the shimmy.

• flapper lifestyle affected lower-middle-class and working-class single women, who were filing new jobs and service industry.

• At night, these women would go to clubs and dances at night to find exitement and companionship.

• Many more a aluent women began to copy the “flapper” style.

(c) Birth Control

• The decade saw a redefinition of motherhood.

• John B. Watson and other behavioralists began to clallange thhe long-- held assumption that woman had an instinctive capacity for motherhood.

• One reult was the growing interest in birth control .

• The pioneer of American birth control movement, Margaret SANGER, began her career promoting birth-conrol devices out of conern or the working-class women.

• She distributed birth-control information to working-class women starting in 1912.

• In 1921, she organized the American Birth Control League, which in 1942 changed its name to Planned Parenthood.

• 

(2) BLACK AMERICANS in the NEW ERA

(a) The “New Negro”

• The most significant development in African American life in early 20th century was the Great Migration northward.

• Black people were freer to speak and act in a northern setting and gained black political influence by concentrating in large cities in states with mny electoral votes.

• The term “New Negro” becan popular in the 1920s as a synonym for Black Americans who would radically defended their interests against violence and inequality.

• The term was made famous in 1925 by Alain Locke, who publishd the essay,”Enter the New Negro,” which focused on black pride and improving social staus of African Americans.

(b) Black Nationalism

• This spirit of the “New Negro” also found expression in what came to be called Negro nationalism, which exalted blackness, black cultural expression, and black exclusiveness.

• Leading spokesman for such views was Marcus Garvey.

• In 1916, he brough the Universal Negro Improvement Association to New York, which he created in Jamacia two years prior.

• His org grew rapidly amid the racial tension of “Red Summer”

• Garvey advocsted to Black merican to free themselves from white culure, seeing every white person as a “potential KKK member”

• Garvey endorsed the “social/political seperation of people to promote their own ideals and civilization.”

• Such a seperation messge appaled other Black leaders. W.E.B Du Bois, for exapmle, labled Garvey, “The most dangerous enemy of the Negro race.”

• Garvey and his aids began creating Black only organizations and newpapers.

• His message of racial pride and self-reliance appealed to many Blacks who arrived in northern cities during the Great Migration and had grown frustrated and embittered with the hypocrisy of Ameriican democracy.

• While Garvey was charged with raud and sent back to Jamacia, his Black Nationalism would take hold in future Black leaders of later generations likw Malcom X, Carmichael, and Frantz Fanon.

(c) Harlem Renaissance

Along with political activity came a bristling of protest, a spirit that received cultural expression in a literary and artistic movement known as…

The Harlem Renaissance

• Claude McKay, Jamacian Immigrant, was the first significant writer of the movement, which was a rediscovery of Black folk culture and bolder treatment of controversial topics.

• Othe writers: Langston Hughes, Zora Neale Hurston, Countee Cullen and James Weldon Johnson.

• Popularization of Jazz because it features improvisation and free-spiritedness. (which is why he decade as called the Jazz Age)

• Probably the most popular and gifted of the era’s jazz musician was trumpeter Louis Armstrong.

(3) IMMIGRATION & NATIVISM

(a) Immigration laws/acts

• By 1920, the U.S population lived in urban centers compared to rural areas.

• The cities offered economic opportuities for women, international migrnts, and internal migrants.

• In years ater WWI, when immigration began to be associated with radicalism, popular sentiment on belhalf of restricion grew rapidly.

• in 1921, Congress passed the 1921 Emergency Quota Act, where immigration in any country could not exceed 3 percent of number of persons of that nationality who had been ine the US in 1910.

• The new law cut immigration from 800,000 to 300,000 in a single year

• The National Origins Act of 1924 banned immigration from East Asia entiely and reduced the quota or Eurpoeans from 3 to 2 percent.

• The quota was not based on 1910 immigrants, but the 1890 census, a year in which there were far fewer “new” southern and Eastern Europeans n the country.

• In other words the US immigration laws heavily favor northwestern Europeans.

• Five years later, a further restriction set a rigid limit of 150,000 immigrants a year.

(b) Nativism & the Klan

• 1920s were still also a time of considerable reactionary backlash and renewed nativism.

• Most prominently, the Ku Klux Klan grew to more than 5 million members and widened its targets, attacking blacks, Jews, urbanites, and anyone whos behavior deviatd fron the KKK’s narow defined code of acceptable Christian bahavior.

• Anti-immigration groups grew in strength as well, targeting the growing number of southers and Eastern European immigrants.

• Accusations that Americas newcomers were dangerous subversives intensified when two italian anarchists, Sacci and Vanzetti, were arested on charges of murder

• Thei trial becasme populal as evd against hen was inconclusive, nonetheless, they were convicted and executed.

(4) Cultural & Political Controversies

:

(a) Religion Scopes M T

• Another famous trial also illustrated the scietal tensions of the decade.

• In 1925, Tennesee passed a law forbidding teachers to teach the theory of evolution.

• John Scopes boke that law, and his trial (dubbed the Scopes Monkey Trial) drew nationl attention.

  It was popular because, for many, it encapsulated the debate over wheter to stick with tradition or abandon it or progress’s sake.

(b) Prohibition

• 19th century morals played a part in the institution of Prohibition, which banned sale, manufacture, and transport of alcoholic beverages.

• The Prohoibition had roots in the 1830s and remained a mainstray of women’s political agendas until the eve of women’s enfranchisement (1917), the Eighteenth Amendment outlawes the American liquor industry.

• Many people resented the govt or intruding in a private matter

• Prohibition was further weakened by the organized crime in producing and selling alcohol in the cities.

• This is where the gangster era started beteen criminals and law enforcement.

• Prohibition was rpealed by the 21st Amendment in 1933.

TOPIC 7.9 Great Depression 😞

(1) 1920s CONTEXT

• In the 1920s throygh the 1930s, the USA continued its tranistion to an urban, industrial ecomony led by large companies.

• By 1920, more than half of the country lived in cities. Moreover, as the transition was happening, per capita income rose by 30%.

• With little inflation, actual purchasing power and therefore the standard of living was increased.

• By the start of 1929, the American economy appeared unstoppable

It would soon take the darkest of turns…

GOVT PRO BUSINESS REPUBLICAN PRESIDENTS-------

• Through the 1920s, three Repiblican presidents control executve branch

• Congress was also Republican

• All three of the era’s presidents (Warren Harding, Calvin Coolidge, and Herbert Hoover) pursued pro-business policies and stood for minimal govenment

• Inaction or cutting back were their governments policies

HARDING

• Moreover, the Harding adinistration was one of scandal and political corruption.

• Most infamous incident of hs administration was the Teapot Dome Scandal, in which oil companies bribed the Secretary of the Interior, Albert Fall, in order to drill on government-owned petroleum reserves in Teapot Dome, Wyoming.

• Harding died in office, and Coollidge, his vice president, assumed the presidency.

COLLIDGE

• When Collidge ran for presidency, he turned the election to a debate on the economy by running the slogan “Collidge prosperity.”

• Collidge won easily and continued Harding’s conservative economic policies.

• He was best kown for his strong committment o lassiez-faire approach to the economy.

• The pro-business atmosphere of the era led to a temporary decline in the popularity of labor unions and membership levels dropped throughout the decade.

• Businessmen hoped that, if they offered benefits of pension plans, opportunities for profit sharing, and company parties, hey could dissuade workers from organizing and demanding even more. Such practices were often refered to as welfare capitalism.

(2) CAUSES of the GREAT DEPRESSION

(a) Stock Market Crash

• In 1928, the Republican nominated Herbert Hoover

• Like Collidge, Hoover got an easy victory by promoting a strong economy.

• During Hoover’s campaign he perdicted that the day would soon come when no American would live in poverty.

• He turned out to be very wrong.

• In October 1929, the stock market crashed and prices dropped; and no matter how far hey dropped; nobody wanted to buy.

• Hoover and his advisers underestimated the damage of the stock maket crash would eventually cause. Hoover convinced the economy was sound

• Traders buy on margin, which meant that they migt have to put up onlly 10 or 20 percent of the cost of each stock, allowig them to borrow against future profits that might- or might not-materialize.

• Margin buying is a destabalizing practice that was made illegal soon after the crash.

• Unfortunately, among those speculators were huge banks and corporations. They were on the verge of bankruptcy and unable to pay employees or guarantee bank deposits.

(b) Other Factors

(i) Weak international economy

• After WWI, the United states becam the world’s largest creditor nation, meaning that other countries owed more to the United States than it owed them.

• European nations argued that their debts should be canceled, but the United States insisted on repayment. European defaults on loans thus impacted the international banking system.

(ii) Depressed Agricultural Sector

• Overproduction led factories to lay off workers and made the farmers’ crops worth much les on the market

(iii) Underconsumption

• In the 1920s, the avaliability of easy credit and intallment plans encouraged people to spend money beyond their means.

• However, as the economy slowed, people bought fewer goods in order to pay their installment plans.

• This underconsumption decreased production and increased unemployment.

• Supply exceeded demand for so many goods, that this might be the main underlying cause for the Great Depression, ultimately leading to deflation, unemployment, and business failures.

(iv)Laissez-Faire Regulation

• Finally, government laxity in regulating large businesses had lead to the wealth and power in the hands of a very few businessmen.

• When their businesses failed, many people were thrown out of work.

(3) Impacts…

The Great Depression was a worldwide event with devastating effects. At home, it had a profound personal impact on all Americans, as well as on the economic, political, and social structure of the nation.

(a) Unemployment and its Effects

• By 1932, 12 million people-- 25 percent o the labor force in America-- were unemployed. PPL lost their jobs as their eployers went bankrupt, or to avoid bankruptcy, laid off the majority of workers.

• Many lost homes and life savings as banks failed.

• Black Americans and unskilled workers were irsst to experience the unemployment. In 1931, unemployment for Black men was estimated at 66%.

• People were forced out of their homes and appartment for failure to pay their rent.

• Some families who had lost their homes lived in unheated skacks they built out of cardboard, tine, or crates. The resulting shantytowns sarcastically came to be called Hoovervilles, a jab at then-president Herbert Hoover.

(b) Farmers

• Farm foreclosure grew in number due to prices dropping in half and ppls general lack of money.

• Years of droughts in southern plains combines wth unsustainable farming techniques resulted in the…

DUST BOWL

• These Black Blizzards swept across the Great Plains east from New Mexico Texas, Oklahoma, Colorado, and Kansas to the Atlantic and beyond.

• Farmers fought evictions by attacking who tried to enforce them

• Bought low auctions and gave them back to the oriinal owner

• With the topsoil went crops, cattle, farms, and livelihoods. 60% of those living in the Dust Bowl lost their farms..

• Two and a half million people were displaced, resulting in a group of migrant farmers called “Okies” moving to California in search of work.

(4) HOOVER’s RESPONSE

(a) Hawley-Smoot Tariff

• At first, President Hoover opposed any federal relief eforts cause he believed they violated the American ideal of ”rugged individualism.”

• However as the depression wordened and calls for a stong regulartry system increased, he iniated farm assistance programs and campaigned for federal projects (such as the Hoover Dam) to make jobs.

• Hawley Smoot Tariff actually worsened he economy bc it raised tariffs (a tax on imported goods) to help American Business.

• The Hawley-Smoot Tariff was the highest protective tariff in U.S. history, and it was enacted during one of the worst economic depressions ever.

• Hoover had Congress create the Federal Emergency Relief Administration.

This provided govt money to bail out large companies and banks but only to businessesin that would potentially pay the money back later.

(b) Bonus Army

• Hoovers most embarrasing moment came in 1932 when Congress considered early payment of benefits of WWI veterens.

• Tens of thourands of poor veterens and their families, calling themselves the Bonus Expeditionary Force (BEF), came to Washington to lobby for the bill.

• When the bill was narrowly deeated, many refused to leave, squatting in empty govt offices or built shanties and stayed thrugh the summer.

• Hoover ordered the army to expell them, which Douglas MacArthur chose to do with excessive force.

• Army forces drove the veterens from D.C. and the burned their makeshift homes.

• News of the army attack killed Hoovers chances of reelection.

• His opponent, New York Governor Franklin D. Roosevelt, argued for a more interventionalist governemnt.

• Roosevelt also promised relief payments to the unemployed which Hoover had opposed throughout his term.

• Roosevelt won the election easily…

TOPIC 7.10 New Deal 🤝

(1) Context

(a) FDR Background

• In 1932, Franklin Delano Roosevelt was elected the 32nd president.

• Grew up in a privaleged family and went to Harvard University and the School of Law at Columbia University.

• HE was governor of New York before being elected president

• Tested by polio, which left him in a wheelchair

(b) Preparing to Lead The Nation

• In order to solve the nation’s problems, FDR surrounded himself with a group of formal and informal advisers.

• Roosevelt’s informal advisors, known as the “brain trust,” were a group of intelectuals and lawyers, including social worker Harry Hopkins.

• His cabiet was first to include women, Frances Perkins as secretary of labor.

• Elanor Roosevelst, his wife was also a impotant political figure in the nation.

• He made use of “fireside chats” whith the American public, involving them emotionally in his reasons for wat he was doing to solve the nations economic problems. 60 million listen to 1st “chat”

(c) FDR’s Economic Plan-- The New Deal

• In his inaugural address, Roosevelt declared war on the Depression.

• Both a powerful presidency and the people’s confidence in Roosevelt played a large part in the implementation of his sweeping reforms, called…

The New Deal.

thr program had the following goals…

• IN the first 100 days in office, Roosevelt worked with Congress to set up New Deal programs to get the ation out of the Great Depression.

• His program would span two distinct ”New Deals” fom 1933 to 1938.

(2) Roosevelt’s New Deal

(a) Relief Legislation

(i) Emergency Banking Act (1933)

• First was to stop the collapse of the national bank system by declaring a bank holiday and closing the nation’s banks.

• The time was used to assure the public that it could have trust in the banks once they reopened.

• EBA called for the xamination of banks to ensure only financially sound ones were operating.

• In following week, million redeposited their money, and American banks were again healthy and could begin to contribute to the economic recovery.

• Later the Federal Depsit Insurance Corporation (FDIC) was created to guarentee bank deposits so ppl wont lose all their money if a bank went bankrput.

(ii) Federal Emergency Relief Act (1933)

• Through FERA $500 million was provided for distribution by states and cities 1933-1935 for direct relief for hungry, homeless, and unemployed people.

(iii) Public Works Administration (1933)

• Operating from 1933 to 1939, the PWA provided jobs through construction projects, such as bridges, housing, hospitals, schools, and aircraft carriers.

(iv) Civilian Conservation Corps (1933)

• At the same time, between 1933-1942, the CCC provided work for 2.5 million young men ages 18 to 25 conserving nautral resources.

• CCC men created 13 state forests in Minnesota, built the Appalachian Trail, and the REd Rocks Ampitheatre in Colorado.

(v) Works Progress Administration (1935)

• From 1935-1943, the Works Progress Administration provided jobs for 25% of adult Americans.

• Replaced direct relief with public works projects.

• They improved 650,000 miles of road

• Richard Wright wrote Native Son, for example, while employed by the WPA

(b) Recovery Legislation

(i) National Industrial Recvoery Act (1933)

• Worked with businesses to help them recover.

• The NRA set “codes of fair competition” within industries to mantain prices, minimun wages, and maximun hours.

• The public was encouraged to buy from companes that followed NIRA codes.

• The NIRA was not popular, however.

Some consumers complained that he NIRA plan raised prices and companies were opposed to allowing unions the right to organize.

• The NIRA was declared unconstitutional in 1935.

(ii) First Agricutural Adjustment Act (1933)

• Aim of the AAA was to raise farmers’ income by cutting the surplus of crops and livestock

• The govt paid famers for reducing the number of aces they planted.

• However, large farmers, as opposed to small farmers and tenant famers, ultimatley benefited from the AAA.

• SImilar to NIRA, the AAA was declared unconstitutioonal in 1936

(iii) Federal Housing Administration (1934)

• FHA created by the National Housing Act to insure bank mortgages

• Mortgages often 20 to 30 years and at down payments of just 10%

(ii) Second Agricultural Adjustment Act (1938)

• The second AAA was passed when farm prices fell in 1938.

• The government paid farmers to store portions of overproduced crops until the price reached the level of prices from 1909 to 1914

• Americas farmers didnt regain prosperity until the second World War brought up demand or food.

(c) Reform Legislation

(i) Glass-Steagall Banking Act (1933)

• Aimed at restoring and maintaining national economic stabillity.

• Created th Federal Deposit Insurance Coropration (FDIC). It guarenteed individual bank deposits up to $5,000.

(ii) Securities Exchange Act (1934)

• SEC created to promote economic stabillity with authority to regulate stock exchanges and investment advisers.

• Powers inclued right to bring action against those found practicing fraud.

(iii) Social Security Act (1935)

• 1935 Social Security Act was public assistance and insurence. Three main parts…

1. Provided old-age insurence paid by emloyer tax

2. Unemployment insurance

3. Gave assistence to dependent children and to the elderly, ill, and handicapped.

(iv) National Labor Relations Act (1935)

• The Wagner Act, named by NY Senator Rober Wagner, guarenteed labor the right to form unions: to practice collective bargaining, and to take collective action, such as strike, to support these actions.

• It created the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB) to ensure that elections to select unions were conducted fairly.

• NLRB halted blacklisting

(v) Fair Labor Standards Act

• also called the Wages and Hours Act, set a minimum wage (originally 25 cents per hour) and a maximum work week (originally 44 hours) or workers in industries involved in interstate commerce.

• Also banned child labor in intertate commerce.

(3) The NEW DEAL & ORGANIZED LABOR…

• Radical, union and populist movements pushed Roosevelt towards more extensive efforts to change the Americaan Ecominic system.

• When NIRA ruled uncostitutional, and with it the section that ensured labor the right to form unions, Roosevelt supported the Wagner Act as a mean of aiding labor.

• He turned away from busiess and saw labor unions as a force in society that woud balance the power of big business

• This pro-labor attitude of New Deal was a sharp change to prior republican administration.

• Resulted in an increase in union membership, which increased from 3 million in 1930 to 10 million by 1941

(4) Constitutioality & Criticism

(a) Political Opposition

• In Roosevelts first two terms, his stronges opposition was from big business.

• In 1934, the American Liberty League was formed in opposition to Roosevelts New Deal.

• It claimed that Roosevelt was excersising too much power as pesident.

• Significant opposition came from various individuals from Huey Long, a powerful senator to Francis E. Townsend.

(b) Constitutional Opposition JOB

• In a series of decisions, the Supreme Court ruled that several key New Deal laws were unconstitutional, including the NIRA and AAA.

• Supreme courts opposition to FDR’s programs continued with the court consistently vetoing New Deal legislation.

• SO Roosevent asked Congress to increase the number of judges from 9 to 15 if the judges refused to retire at the age of 60.

• This Judicial Reorganiztion Bill-- or court packing plan was intended to make he Supreme Court approve the New Deal laws==.==

• Republican and Democrat accused the president of wanting to give himself the powers of a dictator.

• For the first time in Roosevelts presidency, a major bill he put up was opposed/defeated in congress. EVen Democratic senators refused to support him on this controversial measure.

(5) IMPACTS of the NEW DEAL

(a) Native Americans

• In 1924, Native Americans were finally granted citizenship by Congress.

• However, they continued to suffer under the forced assimiation policy of the 1887 Dawes Act.

• Under Roosevelt, govt policy changed to one of tribal restoration

• The 1934 Indian Reorganization Act aimed to restore tribal self-government as well as Native American languages, customs, and religious freedoms

(b) Black Americans

• Racial discrimination cotinued in the 1930s with devastating effects on Black Americans, who were the last hired , first fired.

• They had unemployment rates higher than the national average. Black sharecroppers forced off the land in South cause of cutbacks in farm production.

• Black Ameicans benefitted less from the New Deal than other groups.

• Roosevent was not a strong advocate of civi rights, in part because he needed all the votes he could get from Southern Democrats.

• He didnt support the efforts of Black men and women to abolish the polll tax or pass an anti-lynching law.

• Some NEw Deal Programs, like the WPA and the CCC, these jobs were often segregated

• Only 40% of the nations Black Americans recieved help through a New Deal program.

• At the same time, 50 Black leaders wer appointed to posts in various New Deal agencies

• Most infuential wa Mary McLeod Bethune, who served in the National Youth Administration

(c) Mexican Americans

• Mexican Americans also suffered from discrimination in 1930s. They had become a principal source of agriculture labor in te 1920s in California.

• However, during the depression, high unemployment and drought in the Plains and midwest caused dramatic growth in white migrant workers who pushed west in search of work.

(d) Women

• During depression, women placed in added pressure to serch for work. Declining income presented severe challanges for mother in feeding andd clothing their children.

• To supplement family income, more women sought work, and their percentage of total labor force increased.

• EVen with Elanore Roosevelt championing womens equality, namy New Deal programs allowed women to recieve lower pay than men.

(6) LEGACY of the NEW DEAL

• In his first term--and future terms-- Roosevelt won the support of large numbers of Americans.

• He carefullly built what is known as the New Deal coalition…

• …A voting bloc that embraced the solid Democratic South, new immigrant workers, the big cities, Black Americans who had previously voted Republican, organized labor, the elderly, and farmers who usually voted Republican.

• The shift in the two-party system would come to dominate American politics for the next generation.

• ROOSEVELTS NEW DEAL TRANSFORMED THE USA FROM A LASSIEZ FAIRE CAPITALISM TO A LIMITED WELFARE STATE< REDEFINING GOALS AND IDEAS OF MODERN AMERICAN LIBERALISM.

KT

[1] During the 1930s, policymakers responded to the mass unemployment and social upheavals of the Great Depression by transforming the U.S. into a limited welfare state, redefining the goals and ideas of modern American liberalism.

[2] Franklin Roosevelt’s New Deal attempted to end the Great Depression by using government power to provide relief to the poor, stimulate recovery, and reform the American economy.

[3] Radical, union, and populist movements pushed Roosevelt toward more extensive efforts to change the American economic system, while conservatives in Congress and the Supreme Court sought to limit the New Deal’s scope.

[4] Although the New Deal did not end the Depression, it left a legacy of reforms and regulatory agencies and fostered a long-term political realignment in which many ethnic groups, African Americans, and working-class communities identified with the Democratic Party

[5] The increased demand for war production and labor during World War II and the economic difficulties of the 1930s led many Americans to migrate to urban centers in search of economic opportunities.

Topic 7.11 Interwar Foreign Policy👮‍♂️

(1) POST-WW1 FOREIGN POLICY

(a) Independent Internationalism

• World War I was supposed to be the “war to end all wars”

• But by the 1930s, few people believed that the fragile peace estabished by the Treaty of Versailles would hold up for much longer…

• During the 1920s, Americans were fearful of being pulled into another foreign war.

• Despite US refusal of joining the Leauge of Nations, makers of US foreign policy didnt retreat to isolationism of the Gilded Age.

• Instead they activley pursued arragnements in foreign affairs that would advance American interests while also maintaining world peace

• “Independent internationalism” rather than outright “isolationism” is shown in few key moments of the 1920s

(b) The Washington Conference

• The Republican presidents of the 1920s tried to promote peace and scale back defence spending by arrainging treaties of disarmament.

• Most sucessfull disarmament conference was in Washington D.C. in 1921 during Hardings presidencey.

• This Washington Conference 1921-1922 gathered 8 of the worlds greatest powers.

• Result was set limits on stockpilling armaments and reaffirmed Open Door Policy toward China.

(c) Kellogg-Briand Pact

• in 1928, 62 nations signed the Kellogg-Briand Pact, which condemmed war as a means of foreign policy. This pact was considered a good first step toward a postwar age.

(2) EARLY 1930s FOREIGN POLICY

(a) Manchuria (1931)

Ground shift in 1930s when, defying both Open Door Poicy and the covenent of the Legue of Nations, Japanese troops marced into Manchuria in September 1931, renamned it Manchukuo, and established a puppet government.

• Depite League of Natiions committment to taking action against blatant agression, they did nothing buy pass a resolution condemming Japan for its actions in Manchuria.

• The Japanese delegation then walked out of the League, never to return..

• The United States, not a League member, issued a similar declration.

(b) Good Neighbor Policy (1934)

• In Roosevelts first inargural addess in 1933, he promised a “policy of the good neighbor” towards other nations of the Western Hemisphere.

• Thus in Latin America, Roosevelt tried to back away from its previous interventionalist policy and replaced it with the Good Neighbor Policy in 1934.

• The name is misleading. The US continued to activley promote its interests in Latin America, o__ften to the detriment to ppl live there__.

• However, the Platt Amendent was repealed at this time.

• USA achieved is foreign policy goals via economic coercion and support of pro-American leaders (some of whom were corrupt and brutal.)

• The US also figured out how to maintain a strong and less threatening military presence in the area by paying for maintaining military bases in the countries and by arranging to train the nations’ National Guard units.

(3) NEUTRALITY ACTS (1935-1937)

(a) Nye Committee

• In 1934, when USA was trying to recover from the Great Depression, Senator Gerald Nye lead investigation into reasons the US entered WW1.

• The Nye Committee concluded that US had gone to war to make profits.

• As a result, many Americans supported a return to isolationism.

• Thus, the Nye Committee’s work influenced isolationist legislation for years that followed.

(b) Neutrality Acts

• The Neurality Act of 1935 authorized the president to prohibit all arms shipments and forbid U.S. citizens to travel on ships of belligerent nations.

• The Neutrality Act of 1936 forbade the extension of l__oans and credits to belligerents,__

All the while, Roosevelt poured money into the millitary--just in case.

• Moreover, as it became morre evident that Europe was headed for war, Roosevent lobbied for a repeal of the arms embargo

  stated in the first neutrality act so that America could help arm the Allies (primarily England, France, and, later, the Soviet Union).

• The Neutrality Act of 1937 forbade shipment of arms to the oppoing sides in the civil war in Spain, wich had broken out in 1936.

c) Facist Aggression & Quarentine Speech

• Meanwhile, in the 1930s, totalitaranism govts rose in Germany and Italy, setting the stage for World War II.

• These totalitarian govts based on idea of facism, which places importance of the nation above allelse, including individual rights and freedoms.

• The govts of Nazi Germany led by Adolf Hitler, of Italy, led by Benito Mussolini, and of Japan, led by hideki Tojo, came to be characterized by extreme nationalism, racism, and militarism.

• In the years of 1935 and 1938, Facist discatorships in Ethiopia, the Rhineland, and China, made democratic governments in Birtain and France extremley nervous.

• Moreover, Hitler was creating an air force more powerful than anything could match

• In 1938, Hitler takes over s strip of land in Czechoslovakia, the Sudetenland.

• To maintain peace, British and Fench met in Munich to adopt a policy of apeasement, allowing Hitler to get away with small acts of agression and expansion, including the taking of Sudetenland. USA agreed with Brit and French policy.

• Roosevelt recgnized the dangers of Facist aggression but was limited by the isonaltionist feeling sof the majority of Amricans.

• When Japan invaded China in 1937, he tested public opinion by making a speech proposing that the democracies act together to “quarantine” the aggressor.

• Public opinion of the quarenten speeech was very negative, so Roosevelt dropped the idea as politically unwise.

(4) FROM NEUTRALITY to WAR

(a) Context EURO

• In March 1939, Hitler broke the Munich agreemeny by sending troops to occupy all of Czechoslovakia.

• After Hitlers actions, it became clear that his ambitions had no limit and that was was probably unavoidable.

• SOOOO in September 1, 1939, German tanks and planes began a full-scale invasion of Poland.

• Britian and France subsequently declared war on Germany. Soon afterward, they were at war with its Axis allies, Italy and Japan.

WW2 IN EUROPE HAD BEGUN

(b) Cash and Carry

When World War 2 broke out, Congres relented with an additional neutraliity act, which allowed arms sales and was termed “cash and carry.”

It required the Allies to…

1. Pay cash for their weapons

2. Come to the USA to pick up their purchases and carry the away on their own ships.

• Technically “cash and carry” was a neutral policy, but in pracice, it strongly favored Britain.

(c) Changing U.S. Policy

In 1940, Hitler invaded France, and a German takeover of both France and England appeared a real possibility.

• The chance that America might soon enter the war convinced Roosevelt to run for an unprecedented third term.

• Again, he won convinncingly.

• Wi__thin neutrality act limits, Roosevelt worked to assist the Allies___. He found creative ways to supply them with extra weapons and ships.

• He did this by appointing pro-ally Republicans to head the Department of War and the Navy. He also created the nation’s first peacetime millitary with the Selective Services Act of 1940.

(d) Lend-Lease Act (1941)

It becomes increasingly difficult to describe US as isolationist by the 1940s.

Roosevelt seens Germany’s conquest as a direct threat to the USA security and to the future democratic govts everywhere.

• After Roosevelts reelection, he believed that he was in a stronger position to end the appearence of US neutrality and give materials to aid Britain.

• In a December 1940 fireside chat w/ Americans, he explained his thinking anc concluded: “We must be the great aresenal of democracy.”

• HE justified policy by arguing tht USA must help other nations defend “four freedoms:” Freedom of speech & religion; Freedom from want & fear.

• in 1941, Roosevelt forced the Lend- Leace Act, which allowed US to “lend” armaments to England, which no longer had money to buy the tools of war.

• Later in the year, Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Winston Churchill met at the Atlantic Charter Conference.

The Atlantic Charter declared the Allies’ war aims:

1. Disarmament

2. self-determination

3. freedom of the seas

4. Guaranteed of each nations security

• Given all this activity in Europe, it seems odd that Americas entry to the war came not in Europe but in Asia.

• Japan entered into an alliance with Italy and Germeny (Tripartite Pact.)

(5) PEARL HARBOR oil (1941)….

• By 1941, France had fallen to Germany, anf the British were too busy fighting Hitler to block Japanese expansion.

• USA cut off trade to Japan in responce to their aggression.

• The total embargo included oil, which Japan needed to fuel its war machine.

• Despite peace talks in November of 1941, between USA and Japan to avoid war, US broke Japans secret communication codes and knew that Japan was planning an attack but did not know the location.

It was Pearl Harbor.

• Sunday Dec 7th 1941, Japanese planes from aircaft carriers flew over Pearl Harbor bombing every ship in sight.

• 2,400 Americans were killed in only 2 hours (includig 1,100 lives when the battleship Arizona sank)

• ON Dec 8th, Congress declared war on Japan.

THE USA WAS AT WAR

TOPIC 7.12 WORLD WAR II: MOBILIZATION 🏃‍♂️

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(1) Mobilization…

• The success of the US and Allied armed forces depended on mobilizing America’s people and industries,

• Thus, the role of federal govt expanded well beyond anything in World War I or the New Deal.

(a) Government Agencies

• As in WWI, the govt created special agencies to mobilize US economic and military resources for wartime.

• Early in 1942, the War Prouction Board (WPB) was established to manage war industries. Production of nonesential items lwere shifted to production of ammunition, aircrafts, ships, and tanks.

• Later the Office of War Mobilization (OWM) set production priorities and controled raw materials.

• The govt used a cost-plus system, in which it paid war contrctors the costs of production plus a certain percentage for profit.

• One federal agency, the Office of Price Administration (OPA), regulated almost every aspect of civilian life by freezing prices, wages, and rents ans rationing such comodities like meat, sugar, gas, tires. to fight wartime inflation.

• Federal spending inceased 1,000 pecent between 1939 and 1945. Gross NAtional Product grew by 15 percent or more a year.

(from $91 billion in 1939 to 166 billion in 1945).

• At the same time, by war's end, the national debt had reached the then staggering figure of $250 billion, five times what it had been in 1941.

(b) End of the Depression

• Stimutated by wartime demand and govt contracts, US industries did a booming business, far exceeding their production and profits of 1920s.

• The depression was over, vanquished at last by the comung of war.

• By 1944, uneployment had practically disappeared.

• War-related industrial output in the USA was twice that of all the Axis powers combined.

• Instead of cars, tanks and fighter planes rolled off the assembly lines. 300,000 planes, 100,000 tanks and ships with a total capacity of 53 million tons.

(c) Wartime Propoganda owi

• Few people opposed the war, so govt propoganda was primilarily to maintain public morale ,to encourage people to conserve resources, and to increasse war production.

• The Office of War Information controled news about troop movements and battles.

• Movies, radio, and music reflected a cheerful, patriotic view of the war.

(2) LABOR OPPORTUNITIES

(a) Women

• Many women took jobs that had once been open to men only, when the men had left for war.

• More than 5 million women eventually worked in factories devoted to wartime production.

• Number of married women in the workforce increased to 24%

• However, womens pay never came close to equaling to mens pay.

• The term “Rosie the Riveter” became a symbol for all women who worked in wartime factories.

• Rosie became popular during the war years because it caputred sense of duty of patriotism felt by millions of women.

• Womens and wartime work resulted in important changes in employment and life style.

• Thousands of women stayed in the workforce after the war.

• The entry of women into the paid workforce during the war marked the beginning of along-term trend as women continued to enter the workforce through the rest of the century.

(b) Black Americans

• During World War II, the Great Migration of Black Americans from the South to norhern cities in search of ecominic opportunity contnued.

• However, continued discimination faced Black men and women in the North. Race riots broke out in Detriot and New York City . RED SUMMER 1943.

• Civil rights leader told African Americans to adopt the “Double V” slogan-one for victory over fascism abroad and victory for equality at home.

• Membership in the NAACP during the war and other civil rights organizations, the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) formed 1942 to work more millitantly for Black interests.

• Moreover, after Black leaders threatened a march on Wahington; Roosevelt administration isssued an executive order to prohibit discrimination in govermnent and in business.

• One judicial victory was achieved in the Suprme Court Case Smith v. Allwright (1944), which ruled it was unconstitiutional to deny membership in political parties to African Americans as an way of excluding them from voting in primaries.

(c) Native Americans

• Native American also served in WWII millitary.

• Approximately 25,000 served in the millitary, and thousands more worked in defense industries.

• One of heir mosst valuambe and unique contibutions was to serve as Code Talkers.

• In particular, the Navajo Code Talkers were important to the campaingn in the Pacific and Comanche Code Talkers transmitted messages at the invasion of Normandy (D-Day).

• The Japanese were never able to break up the Navajo Codes, which were crucial to American communication during fighting in the vast Pacific Theater

(d) Mexican Americans & Latinos

• They also a large nimority helping In WW 2 combat and warfront

• Over 300,000 served in the millitary

• A 1942 agreement with MExico allowed Mexican farmworkers, known as braceros, to enter the USA in harvest season without going through formal immigration procedures.

• Sudden Meican influx in Los Angeles stirred white resentment and let to the so-called zoot suit riots in summer of 1843, in which white amd Mexican Americans battled on the streets.

(3) Japanese Internment

• More than any other ethnic group, Japanese American suffered from their association wit a wartime enemy.

• Immingrants from Japan began arriving in the US in the early 1900s, setting mainly on USA west coast.

• By 1941, American of Japanese descent, called Nisei, had been born inthe US and were Ameriacn citizens.

• Almost 20,000 native-born Japanese served in the US millitary loyally.

• Nevertheless, following the atack on pearl harbor, JAP Americans were suspected of being potential spies and saboteurs.

• Japanese invasion of west coast was considered imminent by many.

• In 1942, these irrational fears as well as racism prompted President Roosevelt to issue Executive Order 9066.

• This ordered over 100,000 Japanese Americans on the West Coast to leave their homes and reside in millitary zones for inprisonmet.

• They were forced out of their homes and moved to hastily constructed military-style barracks ringed with barbed wire and guarded by troops.

• In the case of Korematsu v. U.S. (1944), th Supreme Court upheld US govts internment policy as justified in wartime

Topic 7.13 World War II: MiIlitary 🐊

(1) Fight for DEMOCRACY…

• Americans viewed WW2 as a fight for democracy and freedom against facist and millitarist ideologies.

• The war pitted the Axis Powers (GErmany, Italy and Japan) againsed the Allies (US, Britain, USSR

(2) TWO THEATERS…

FIghitig of WW2 as done on two fronts, or “theaters of operation.”

(a) The European Theater

• Battle of Stalingrad 1942, German troops forced to surrender**,** marked a turning point in the East and allowed Russian soliders to brgin to move west.

British and Americans able to coordiante their millitary strategy focusing on…

1. Overcoming German sublarines in Atlantic Ocean

2. Begin bombarding raids on German cities

• The naval war to control the shipping lanes was known as the Battle of the Atlantic.

• German submaries sank over 500 Allied ships in 1942

• Tech like radar, sonar helped Alllies contain menace of German subs.

• Later in 1943, allies defeatt Axis in North Africa for ctrl of Mediterranean Sea snd Suez Canal.

• Mussolini fell from power that summer.

• Subsequently, Allied drive to liberate France on Jun 6, 1944 with largest invasion by sea in history.

• On D-Day British, Canadian, and US forces under the command of General Eisenhower secured seeral beachheads on the normandy coast.

• By the end of August, Paris was liberated.

• Allied bombing of Germany reduced its ability to continue fighting and reduced industrial capaity

• Recognizing that the end was near, as the Rusiian army closed in on Berlin, Hitler comitted suicide on April 30th, 1945.

The surender of the Nazi armies took place a week later, in May 7th

(b) The Pacific Theater

• The war in Pacific was dominated by naval forced battling over a vast area.

• Here, it was largely the USA vs Japan. After the Pearl Harbor attack, Japan seized control of much of East and Southeast Asia.

• Intercept and decoding Japan messages allowed for the US to destroy 4 Japanesse carriers and 300 pplane sin the Battle of Midway (Jun 4-7 1942)

• Battle of Midway was a key turning point in ending Japanese expansion

• After the victory a Midway, USA used a strategy called “island hopping” to get within striking distance ofJpans home islands by seizing stategic locations in the pacific.

Allied forces steadily moved toward Japan

• 1944-1945, bitter Pacific fighting. Battle of Okinawa in the spring of 1945, for example, cost 50,000 American lives

AMERICANS DEVELPOE FRIGHTENINGLY DESTRUCTIVE NEW WEAPON…

(3) MILITARY SERVICE

(a) Women

• During the war more than 200,000 women joined the millitary serices. Women served seperate from men, such as the Womens Army Corps (WAC) and performed vital millitary duties.

• WAC operated radios and repaired plane and vehicles, did clerical dutes.

(b) Black Americans

• Nearly one million Black men and women served in the millitary during WW2

• However, segregated and Black soliders were limited to supporting roles.

• The Tuskeege Airmen, the first Black millitay pilots, was one example of Black soliders becoming distinguished fighters.

• These 994 fighter pilots swere some of the most decorated fliers. HOWEVER, they fought two wars: one overseas against a foreign army and the other against racism at home.

• 1948, President Harry S Trueman showed is civil rights support by issuing Executive Order 9981, which lead to the end ofracial segregation in the mllitary.

(c) Native Americans

• Approx 25,000 Native Americans served in the Millitary

• One of their unique/valuable contributions was the Code Talkers

• Specifically, the Navajo Code Talkers and the Comanche Conde Talkers transmitted messages at the invasion of Normandy (D-Day)

• Jpansese were never able to break the Navajo codes.

(4) ATOMIC BOMB…

• Beginning in 1942, the top-secet Manhattan Project, led by J. Robert Oppenheimer, depevoped the atomic bomb

• Costing $2 billion to create, the bomb power cme from the splitting of the atom.

• Harry S. Trueman called on Japan to surrender unconditionally of face “utter destruction.”

• With Japan refusing to surender, Trueman estimated an american invasion woul cost 500,000 lives, he decided to use the new weapon on two Japanese cities.

• Aug 6, bombimg of Hiroshima, and on Aug 9, a seconf bomb was dropped in Nagasaki.

• 250,000 Japanses died, either immediatley or prolonged period of suffering.

• Wihtin a week after the second bombing, Japan agreed to surrender.

• General MacArthur recived Japans formal surrender on September 3, 1945, in Tokyo Harbor abroad the battleship Missouri

TOPIC 7.14 Postwar Diplomacy

(1) Post- War America:

• With Japans surrender in late summer 1945 most destrutcive war came to an end. VJ DAY

• The US emerged from the war victorious and in a position of unprecedented power, influence, and prestige

• Indeed, US emerged from ww2 as the worlds greatest millitary power.

• Compared to other nations USA suffered little physical destruction.

• The unconstitutional surrender of J__apan and Germany allowed US to remake defeated enemies into new allies__.

• US for a short time had a monopoly on the ability to use nuclear power

• US was aware of its strength as a nation and its responcibillity to preserve world peace.

However, even before WW2’s end, there were signs of tension between the US and the Soviet Union

• Once the war was over, those tensions grew to create the “Cold War”…

• …A long and dagnerous rivalry between former allies that casts its shadow in international and domestic life in Amerian for more than 4 decades.

(2)Wartime Diplomacy:

• Seroius strains between US and Soviet Union start Jan 1943, when Roosevelt and Chuchhill met in Casablanca, Morrocco, to discuss Allied strategy.

• The two leaders could not accept Stalins most important demand,-- the immediate opning of a second front in Western Europe.

• They would not negocite a seperate peace with Hitler and leave the Soviets to fight on alone.

• Nov 1942, Roosevelt and Churchhill meet with Stalin in Tehan, Iran. BUT Roosevts most effective bargaining tool, Stalins need for American assistance aganst Germany, had been removed.

• Instead, soviet forces were now launching their oown westward offensive.

• Nevertheless, the Tehran Conference seem mostly a sucess. Stalin agreed to American request that the Soviet Union enter the war in the Pacific asap after the end of Euro hostilliities.

• Rooevelt, in turn, promised an Anglo-Americam second front would be established within six months.

On other matters, however, the origins of future disagreements wer already visible.

POLAND:

• Roosevelt and Chruchhill agreed with the extension of the Soviet boarder, allowing Stalin to take some Polish territory

• BUT THEY DIFFERED SHARPLY on the nature of the postwar governent in the portion of Poland that would remain independedt.

• Roosevent and Churchhill sided with the claims of the Polish govt-in-exile that had been funcioning well in London since 1940

• Stalin, however, wanted another pro-communist exiled govt.

• The three leders left Tehran Conference with the issue unresolved.

(3) Yalta:

• More than a year later, after the Tehran Conference, Aliied met to discuss the fate of postwar Europe.

• Feb of 1945, Allied leaders met in Soviet City Yalta Conferencce and in effect redrew the world map.

• By this time the Soviet army occupied parts of Eastern Europe, a result of the campaign to drive the German army out of the USSR.

• Stalin wanna build “buffer zone” beween Soviet Union and Western Europe

• Wanted to surround hmself witth “friendly” nations towards his govt.

• “free and ufettered elections” allies would regret after the war.

(4) Iron Curtain & Potsdam

• despite promise to have free and unfettered elections, soviet tanks rolled into romnia three weeks aafter yalta, thus beginning the Iron Curtain.

• Iron curtain metaphor by winston churchhill describe symbolic division of eastern and western europe, thus the origins of the cold war.

• Toward end of the war, Allies agreed o help createh UNited NAtions to mediate future international disputes.

• Allies met again in Potsdam to decde how to implement te Yalta agreements. Harry S. Trueman represented the USA cause Roosevelt had died. Things did not go well in Postdam.

• With wars end and no nazi threat, the differences between the US and the Soviet Union were growing more pronounced…

TOPIC 8.2 COLD WAR 1945 to 1980 ❄?🧊