Untitled Flashcards Set

26th of July Movement - a cuban political organization created in 1955 and led by Fidel Castro, which would eventually overthrow the authoritarian regime of President Fulgenico Batista in 1959. Its name originated from a failed attack on the Moncada army barracks on July 26, 1953

Allende, Salvador - was the democratically elected socialist president of chile from 1970 to 1973. His government implemented socialist policies, including nationalizing industries and redistribution wealth, which led to rensions with the U.S. and a domestic opposition. He was overthrown in a U.S. backed military coup led by Augusto Pinochet, marking a significant moment in Cold War -era intervention in Latin America

Alliance for Progress - The Alliance for Progress was a U.S. initiative launched by President John F. Kennedy in 1961 to promote economic development and prevent the spread of communism in Latin America. It provided aid and encouraged democratic reforms, but it largely failed due to corruption, lack of long-term investment, and continued U.S. support for authoritarian regimes. This program reflected Cold War-era U.S. policy, which prioritized stability over genuine democracy in the region.

Arbenz, Jacobo - Jacobo Árbenz was the president of Guatemala from 1951 to 1954 and pursued land reform policies that threatened U.S. economic interests, particularly the United Fruit Company. His government was overthrown in a CIA-backed coup (Operation PBSUCCESS), leading to decades of instability and authoritarian rule. Árbenz’s downfall exemplifies U.S. intervention in Latin America to protect economic and geopolitical interests during the Cold War.

Santa Anna, Antonio Lopez de - Antonio López de Santa Anna was a Mexican general and politician who served multiple terms as president of Mexico in the 19th century. He is best known for his role in the Texas Revolution, including the Battle of the Alamo, and for losing a large portion of Mexican territory to the U.S. after the Mexican-American War (1846-1848). Santa Anna's leadership was marked by military victories, political instability, and a legacy of authoritarian rule that shaped Mexico’s early republican era.

Banana Republics - "Banana Republic" refers to politically unstable Latin American countries whose economies were dominated by foreign corporations, particularly U.S.-based fruit companies like United Fruit Company. These countries, such as Honduras and Guatemala, often had corrupt governments that prioritized corporate interests over national sovereignty. The term highlights the exploitative relationship between U.S. businesses and Latin American nations, often backed by U.S. military or political intervention.

Banana Trade Wars – The Banana Trade Wars were economic conflicts between the U.S. and the European Union (EU) in the late 20th century over banana import regulations. The EU favored bananas from former European colonies in Africa, the Caribbean, and the Pacific (ACP countries), while the U.S. backed Latin American producers connected to American fruit companies. This dispute highlighted the global economic competition over agricultural trade and the lasting impact of colonial economic structures.

Banana Wars – The Banana Wars (1898–1934) refer to a series of U.S. military interventions in Central America and the Caribbean, aimed at protecting American business interests, particularly the United Fruit Company. These conflicts occurred in countries like Honduras, Nicaragua, and the Dominican Republic, often under the pretext of maintaining stability but primarily serving U.S. economic and geopolitical goals. The wars reflect the broader pattern of U.S. imperialism in Latin America during the early 20th century.

Bicameralism - Bicameralism refers to a legislative system with two separate chambers, typically an upper and a lower house, that share lawmaking responsibilities. In Latin America, many countries, such as Mexico and Argentina, have bicameral legislatures to balance representation between different political or regional interests. This system is important because it aims to provide checks and balances, prevent hasty decision-making, and ensure broader representation in government.

Bolivar, Simon - Simón Bolívar was a military leader and political revolutionary who played a key role in Latin America’s independence from Spain in the early 19th century. He led campaigns that liberated Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia, envisioning a united Latin American federation, though his dream ultimately failed. Bolívar remains a symbol of anti-colonial struggle and Latin American unity, influencing nationalist movements across the region.

CAFTA_DR- CAFTA-DR is a free trade agreement between the U.S., the Dominican Republic, and several Central American countries, including Costa Rica, El Salvador, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. Signed in 2004, it aimed to promote economic integration and trade liberalization, benefiting multinational corporations but also sparking criticism over labor rights and local economic impacts. The agreement reflects broader trends of neoliberalism and U.S. influence in Latin American economies.

Caudillismo-Caudillismo is a political system characterized by strong, charismatic leaders (caudillos) who rule through personalist authority rather than democratic institutions. Common in 19th and early 20th-century Latin America, caudillos like Juan Manuel de Rosas in Argentina and Antonio López de Santa Anna in Mexico maintained power through military force and patronage. This phenomenon highlights the challenges of political instability and weak institutions in post-independence Latin America.

Chapultepec Peace Accords -The Chapultepec Peace Accords, signed in 1992 in Mexico City, ended the 12-year Salvadoran Civil War between the government and the leftist Farabundo Martí National Liberation Front (FMLN). The agreement included military reforms, human rights protections, and the demilitarization of political institutions, marking a major transition toward democracy in El Salvador. The accords exemplify broader peace and reconciliation efforts in Latin America after years of civil conflict.

Checks and Balances -Checks and balances refer to the system in which government branches (executive, legislative, and judicial) have separate powers to prevent any one branch from becoming too powerful. Many Latin American countries, influenced by the U.S. model, adopted this principle in their constitutions, though in practice, strong executives often undermine it. This system is crucial for maintaining democracy and limiting authoritarianism in the region.

Clientelism - Clientelism is a political practice where politicians or elites provide goods, jobs, or services in exchange for political support, often reinforcing inequality and corruption. Common in Latin America, clientelism has been used by populist leaders and parties to secure votes, especially among marginalized communities. This system undermines democratic accountability and perpetuates dependence on political patrons rather than institutionalized governance.

Columbian Exchange -The Columbian Exchange refers to the widespread transfer of plants, animals, people, technology, and diseases between the Americas, Europe, and Africa following Christopher Columbus’s voyages in 1492. This exchange dramatically reshaped societies, introducing crops like potatoes and corn to Europe while bringing horses and deadly diseases like smallpox to the Americas. It had profound consequences, including population decline among Indigenous peoples and the rise of global trade networks.

Containment -Containment was a Cold War-era U.S. foreign policy aimed at preventing the spread of communism, particularly in Latin America and other developing regions. This policy justified U.S. interventions, such as supporting military coups in Chile and Guatemala and backing anti-communist forces like the Contras in Nicaragua. Containment shaped U.S.-Latin American relations by prioritizing stability over democracy, often at the expense of human rights.

Contras and Iran Contra Affair -The Contras were U.S.-backed rebel groups in Nicaragua that fought against the leftist Sandinista government in the 1980s. The Iran-Contra Affair was a secret U.S. operation in which the Reagan administration illegally sold weapons to Iran and used the proceeds to fund the Contras, bypassing congressional restrictions. This scandal exposed covert U.S. interference in Latin America and highlighted the contradictions in U.S. foreign policy during the Cold War.

Cuban Missile Crisis -The Cuban Missile Crisis (1962) was a 13-day standoff between the U.S. and the Soviet Union after American spy planes discovered Soviet nuclear missiles in Cuba. The crisis brought the world to the brink of nuclear war but ended with a negotiated settlement: the U.S. agreed not to invade Cuba and secretly removed missiles from Turkey in exchange for the Soviet withdrawal from Cuba. This event underscored Cold War tensions and solidified Cuba’s role as a key Soviet ally in Latin America.

Decree - A decree is an official order or decision issued by a government authority, often by the executive branch, that has the force of law without requiring legislative approval. In Latin America, decrees have historically been used by presidents and military leaders to bypass legislatures, particularly in authoritarian regimes or times of crisis. The use of decrees highlights the concentration of executive power and its impact on governance and democracy in the region.

Democracy, Electoral – Electoral democracy refers to a system in which leaders are chosen through competitive elections, but it may lack broader democratic features such as strong institutions or civil liberties. Many Latin American countries have adopted electoral democracy, but issues like corruption and weak rule of law often limit its effectiveness. This concept is crucial for understanding the distinction between holding elections and having a fully functioning democracy.

Democracy, Hybrid – A hybrid democracy is a political system that combines elements of both democratic and authoritarian rule, often allowing elections while restricting political freedoms and judicial independence. Countries like Venezuela under Chávez and Maduro exemplify hybrid democracies, where elections occur but the opposition faces suppression. This concept is important for analyzing the challenges of democratization and democratic backsliding in Latin America.

Democracy, Presidential – Presidential democracy is a system where the head of state (the president) is directly elected by the people and serves as both the head of government and state. Latin American countries like Brazil and Mexico follow this system, with varying degrees of checks and balances. Presidentialism is significant in Latin American politics due to its historical association with both democratic governance and the rise of strong, authoritarian leaders.

Democracy, Procedural – Procedural democracy focuses on the presence of democratic processes, such as free elections and institutional governance, without necessarily ensuring broader democratic values like equality or civil rights. Some Latin American countries meet procedural democratic standards but still suffer from deep inequalities and corruption. This distinction helps explain why some countries are formally democratic but fail to deliver meaningful representation and justice.

Democracy, Semi-Presidential – A semi-presidential democracy features both a directly elected president and a prime minister who is accountable to the legislature, balancing executive power. While more common in Europe, this system exists in Latin American discussions about governance models, especially in debates over reducing presidential overreach. The semi-presidential system is studied as a possible alternative to prevent excessive concentration of power in Latin American presidents.

Democracy, Substantive – Substantive democracy goes beyond elections, emphasizing civil liberties, social justice, and meaningful political participation. A country with substantive democracy ensures not only voting rights but also freedoms like press, speech, and fair legal treatment. This concept is key for evaluating the quality of democracy in Latin America, where procedural elements may exist, but deeper democratic values often face challenges.

Dollar Diplomacy – Dollar Diplomacy refers to U.S. foreign policy, particularly under President Taft (1909–1913), which aimed to extend American influence in Latin America through economic investment rather than direct military intervention. The U.S. used financial leverage to control economies in countries like Nicaragua and the Dominican Republic, ensuring pro-American governments. This policy reflects the broader pattern of U.S. economic imperialism in Latin America.

Dom Pedro I – Dom Pedro I was the first emperor of Brazil (1822–1831) and played a key role in Brazil’s independence from Portugal. Unlike other Latin American independence movements, Brazil’s transition was relatively peaceful, with Pedro I declaring independence while still maintaining monarchical rule. His reign highlights the unique path Brazil took compared to the republican revolutions in Spanish America.

Dominant Party Regime – A dominant party regime is a political system where one party consistently holds power, often through electoral manipulation, patronage, or weak opposition. In Latin America, Mexico’s Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) ruled for over 70 years (1929–2000) as a classic example of this system. Studying dominant party regimes helps explain how formal democratic structures can coexist with prolonged single-party control.

Electoral Authoritarianism – Electoral authoritarianism is a political system in which elections are held but are neither free nor fair, allowing authoritarian leaders to maintain power under a democratic façade. Many Latin American regimes, such as Mexico under the PRI and Venezuela under Chávez and Maduro, have used this model by controlling media, suppressing opposition, and manipulating election rules. This concept is key to understanding how authoritarianism can persist within seemingly democratic systems.

Federalist Papers – The Federalist Papers were a series of essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay in 1787–1788 to promote the ratification of the U.S. Constitution. While primarily relevant to U.S. history, their arguments about federalism, checks and balances, and separation of powers influenced democratic governance models, including those adopted in Latin America. These ideas remain significant in discussions about constitutional design and governance in the region.

Filibusters – In the Latin American context, filibusters were private American adventurers who attempted to seize control of territories in the 19th century, such as William Walker’s invasion of Nicaragua in the 1850s. These actions were often driven by expansionist and pro-slavery motives, reflecting U.S. imperialist ambitions in the region. Filibustering represents a historical example of foreign intervention and the resistance it provoked in Latin America.

Gadsden Purchase (1854) – The Gadsden Purchase was an agreement between the U.S. and Mexico in which the U.S. bought a portion of northern Mexico (present-day southern Arizona and southwestern New Mexico) for $10 million. The land was acquired to facilitate the construction of a southern transcontinental railroad and solidify U.S. territorial expansion. This event is significant in the broader history of U.S.-Mexico relations and territorial disputes following the Mexican-American War.

Good Neighbor Policy – The Good Neighbor Policy was a U.S. foreign policy approach introduced by President Franklin D. Roosevelt in the 1930s to improve relations with Latin America by reducing military interventions. This policy led to the withdrawal of U.S. troops from countries like Haiti and improved diplomatic ties, though economic and political interference continued. It represents a shift in U.S. strategy, from direct military control to more subtle forms of influence in the region.

Granma – Granma was the yacht used by Fidel Castro, Che Guevara, and other revolutionaries to travel from Mexico to Cuba in 1956 to launch the Cuban Revolution against Fulgencio Batista. The successful revolution led to the establishment of a communist state in Cuba in 1959. The name Granma has since become a symbol of Cuban revolutionary history, even lending its name to the official newspaper of the Cuban Communist Party.

Grito de Dolores – The Grito de Dolores ("Cry of Dolores") was the call to arms issued by Miguel Hidalgo on September 16, 1810, marking the beginning of the Mexican War of Independence against Spanish rule. This event is celebrated as Mexico’s Independence Day and symbolizes the fight for national sovereignty and self-determination. It played a crucial role in mobilizing people against colonial rule and set the stage for Mexico’s eventual independence in 1821.

Guerrilla – A guerrilla is a member of an irregular military force that uses unconventional tactics, such as ambushes, sabotage, and mobility, to combat larger, traditional armies. Guerrilla movements have played a significant role in Latin American history, including the Cuban Revolution and conflicts in Colombia and Central America. These fighters often emerge in response to oppression or foreign intervention, shaping political and military conflicts in the region.

Guerrilla Warfare – Guerrilla warfare is a military strategy used by small, irregular forces to engage in hit-and-run attacks, ambushes, and sabotage against a more powerful enemy. This tactic was employed effectively in the Cuban Revolution, by leftist insurgents in Colombia, and by indigenous and peasant movements across Latin America. It reflects how asymmetrical warfare has been used to challenge state and foreign military power in the region.

Guevara, Ernesto “Che” – Ernesto "Che" Guevara was an Argentine Marxist revolutionary, physician, and key leader in the Cuban Revolution alongside Fidel Castro. After helping overthrow Batista in 1959, he promoted socialist policies in Cuba and later attempted to spread revolution to Africa and Bolivia, where he was captured and executed by the Bolivian military (with U.S. support) in 1967. Che remains a global symbol of revolution and anti-imperialism, despite controversy over his militant methods.

Impeachment – Impeachment is a legal process in which a government official, often the president, is accused of misconduct and removed from office if found guilty. In Latin American countries, impeachment has been used in political conflicts, such as in Brazil with the impeachment of President Dilma Rousseff in 2016. It represents a check on executive power, though often viewed as a politically charged process.

Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) – The FARC was a Marxist-Leninist guerrilla group founded in 1964 in Colombia. It waged an armed struggle against the Colombian government, engaging in kidnapping, drug trafficking, and other illicit activities to fund its operations. The FARC is considered a terrorist organization by several countries, including the U.S., and entered into peace talks with the Colombian government in 2016, formally disbanding its armed operations.

Sandinista National Liberation Front – The Sandinista National Liberation Front (FSLN) was a revolutionary group that overthrew the Somoza dictatorship in Nicaragua in 1979, leading to the establishment of a socialist government under Daniel Ortega. The FSLN received support from the Soviet Union during the Cold War, which made it a focal point of U.S. intervention, including the funding of the Contra rebels. The FSLN's legacy is central to Nicaraguan politics, with Ortega returning to power in the 2000s.

L’Ouverture, Toussaint – Toussaint L’Ouverture was a leader of the Haitian Revolution, leading enslaved Africans to overthrow French colonial rule in the late 18th century. L’Ouverture is remembered for his military and strategic brilliance, which helped secure Haiti’s independence in 1804, making it the first independent black republic. His efforts are a significant part of the broader history of anti-colonial movements in Latin America and the Caribbean.

Latifundia – Latifundia are large agricultural estates or plantations historically owned by wealthy elites in Latin America, often worked by peasants or enslaved people. These estates were central to the colonial economy, particularly in countries like Mexico and Brazil. The legacy of latifundia has contributed to deep socioeconomic inequalities in the region, as land distribution remains a contentious issue.

Manifest Destiny – Manifest Destiny was a 19th-century U.S. belief that it was America’s divine mission to expand its territory across North America. This concept justified U.S. territorial acquisitions, including the annexation of Texas, the Mexican-American War, and the displacement of Native American peoples. In the context of Latin America, it is significant for understanding the U.S. imperialist mindset that led to interventions in the region.

Medidas Provisorias – Medidas Provisorias refers to emergency measures or temporary laws enacted by governments, particularly in situations of crisis. In Latin America, these measures have been used by authoritarian regimes to justify the suspension of civil rights, often during periods of military rule. They reflect the tension between governance and civil liberties in times of political instability.

Military Regime – A military regime is a form of government in which the military controls political power, often following a coup d'état. Many Latin American countries, such as Argentina, Chile, and Brazil, have experienced military dictatorships, especially during the 20th century. These regimes are associated with human rights abuses, repression, and the suppression of democratic institutions.

Monroe Doctrine – The Monroe Doctrine, announced by President James Monroe in 1823, declared that the Western Hemisphere was off-limits to European colonization and interference. In practice, it was used by the U.S. to justify intervention in Latin American affairs, asserting U.S. dominance in the region and influencing foreign policy for much of the 19th and 20th centuries.

Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) – The PRI was a political party in Mexico that ruled the country from 1929 to 2000, maintaining power through a combination of electoral manipulation, clientelism, and corporatism. The PRI is often described as a dominant-party regime, where opposition parties existed but were weak. The PRI’s long rule had a significant impact on Mexico’s political system and is central to the country’s history of political stability and authoritarian practices.

NAFTA – The North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) was a trade agreement signed in 1994 between the U.S., Canada, and Mexico to eliminate trade barriers and increase economic cooperation. NAFTA resulted in the creation of one of the world’s largest free trade zones and significantly affected manufacturing and agriculture sectors in Latin America. It was later replaced by the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) in 2020.

National Liberation Army (ELN) – The National Liberation Army (ELN) is a Marxist guerrilla group founded in 1964 in Colombia, inspired by the Cuban Revolution. The group has been involved in kidnappings, drug trafficking, and attacks on infrastructure in its efforts to overthrow the Colombian government. It remains a significant actor in Colombia’s ongoing armed conflict, though it has also engaged in peace talks with the government.

Oligarchic Regime – An oligarchic regime is a form of governance in which power is concentrated in the hands of a small, wealthy elite, often from a particular social class or family. Many Latin American countries, especially in the 19th and early 20th centuries, experienced oligarchic regimes where the landowning class had significant political control. These regimes often limited political participation, reinforcing socioeconomic inequalities.

Operation Condor – Operation Condor was a covert campaign of political repression and terror coordinated by South American military dictatorships in the 1970s and 1980s. The operation involved the collaboration of several countries, including Argentina, Chile, Brazil, and Uruguay, to eliminate leftist political opponents through torture, assassination, and forced disappearances. It is a dark chapter in Latin American history, reflecting the extent of state-sponsored violence during the Cold War.

Oversight – Oversight refers to the process of monitoring and regulating government actions to ensure accountability and prevent abuse of power. In Latin American politics, oversight is crucial in promoting transparency and protecting against corruption, especially in the context of weak or authoritarian institutions. Effective oversight mechanisms are key to ensuring democratic governance and the rule of law.

Peron, Juan – Juan Perón was an Argentine military officer and politician who served as the President of Argentina three times between 1946 and 1974. He established the Peronist movement, which advocated for labor rights, social welfare, and a strong state role in the economy. His presidency, though controversial, had a lasting impact on Argentine politics, with his wife, Eva Perón, also becoming a prominent figure in promoting social justice and women's rights.

Personalism/Personalist Regime – A personalist regime is one in which political power is concentrated in the hands of a single individual, often overshadowing institutional structures. Leaders in personalist regimes often govern based on their personal charisma and control over the state, rather than relying on democratic or institutional support. This type of regime has been a hallmark of several Latin American countries, where leaders like Juan Perón or Hugo Chávez amassed significant personal authority.

Pink Tide – The Pink Tide refers to the wave of left-leaning governments that began to emerge in Latin America in the early 2000s, characterized by a focus on social justice, poverty reduction, and anti-imperialist policies. Leaders such as Hugo Chávez in Venezuela, Evo Morales in Bolivia, and Lula da Silva in Brazil were key figures in this movement. The Pink Tide represented a shift away from neoliberal economic policies toward more state-driven models of development.

Pinochet, Augusto – Augusto Pinochet was a Chilean general who led a military coup in 1973, overthrowing the democratically elected government of Salvador Allende. Pinochet ruled Chile as a dictator until 1990, implementing economic reforms that emphasized neoliberalism while also using brutal repression to silence political opposition, leading to thousands of deaths and disappearances. His regime remains highly controversial, with ongoing debates about the balance between economic progress and human rights abuses.

Plan Colombia – Plan Colombia was a U.S. aid initiative launched in 2000 aimed at combating drug trafficking, insurgency, and organized crime in Colombia. It provided financial and military support to the Colombian government to fight drug cartels and left-wing guerrilla groups like FARC. While it contributed to weakening drug cartels and insurgent groups, it also led to controversy over human rights abuses and the displacement of civilians.

Platt Amendment – The Platt Amendment, passed in 1901, was a U.S. law that allowed the U.S. to intervene in Cuban affairs and restricted Cuba's ability to make treaties or borrow money from foreign powers. It was inserted into the Cuban constitution following the Spanish-American War and served as a justification for U.S. imperialism in the Caribbean. Its provisions were repealed in 1934, but its legacy marked U.S. dominance in the region.

Political Linkage – Political linkage refers to the ways in which political systems connect citizens to the state and facilitate communication between voters and their representatives. In Latin America, political linkage often takes place through parties, social movements, or informal channels like clientelism, where politicians exchange state resources for political support. Linkage is vital for ensuring political accountability and responsiveness in democracies.

Popular Sovereignty – Popular sovereignty is the principle that political authority is derived from the consent of the people. In Latin America, it has been a fundamental concept in the development of democratic governance, challenging authoritarian regimes. The idea underlines the right of the people to choose their government and influence political decisions, serving as a cornerstone of modern constitutionalism.

Populism – Populism is a political ideology that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often against perceived elites or establishment forces. In Latin America, populist leaders like Juan Perón in Argentina, Hugo Chávez in Venezuela, and Evo Morales in Bolivia have used populist rhetoric to rally support, frequently implementing policies that appeal to the working class and marginalized groups. Populism can be both a force for social change and a challenge to democratic norms.

Presidentialism – Presidentialism is a form of government in which the president is both the head of state and government, typically elected independently of the legislature. In many Latin American countries, presidentialism is the dominant political system, as it centralizes executive power. However, this system can lead to political instability, especially in cases of weak institutions or conflicts between the executive and legislative branches.

La Reconquista – La Reconquista refers to the period in Mexican history when conservatives sought to restore the monarchy and return to a more traditional form of governance following Mexico’s independence from Spain. This movement was heavily influenced by conservative elites who desired a return to hierarchical social structures. It was an attempt to undo the republican ideals of the Mexican Revolution, though it ultimately failed.

Representation – Representation refers to the act of electing individuals to act on behalf of a group or population in a political system. In Latin American democracies, representation is crucial for ensuring that the diverse needs and interests of citizens are addressed by the government. It also plays a significant role in shaping policies related to issues like social inequality and governance.

Representation, Symbolic – Symbolic representation refers to the way in which political leaders or institutions stand for particular values, identities, or groups within a society. In Latin America, symbolic representation is important for addressing historical inequalities, as it involves the recognition and inclusion of marginalized groups in the political sphere, such as women, indigenous peoples, and Afro-descendants.

Representation, Territorial/Regional – Territorial or regional representation refers to the way political power is distributed geographically, often through electoral districts or regional parliaments. In Latin American countries, territorial representation ensures that various regions, including rural or less populated areas, have a voice in national governance. It is crucial for promoting political balance and addressing regional disparities in economic development and public services.

Roosevelt Corollary – The Roosevelt Corollary, added to the Monroe Doctrine in 1904 by U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt, asserted that the U.S. had the right to intervene in Latin American countries to maintain stability and prevent European intervention. It was used to justify U.S. military interventions in the Caribbean and Central America, further solidifying U.S. influence in the region during the early 20th century.

San Martín, José de – José de San Martín was an Argentine general and one of the leading figures in the independence movements of South America. He played a pivotal role in the independence of Argentina, Chile, and Peru from Spanish colonial rule. San Martín is often regarded as a national hero in several South American countries for his military strategy and leadership during the Wars of Independence.

Separation of Power – Separation of power is a political doctrine that divides government into distinct branches—typically the executive, legislative, and judiciary—to prevent any one branch from gaining excessive power. This principle is fundamental in many Latin American countries’ constitutions to protect democracy and ensure checks and balances. It promotes a system where each branch has distinct roles and can hold the others accountable.

Spanish-American War – The Spanish-American War of 1898 was a conflict between Spain and the United States, primarily over the issue of Cuban independence. The U.S. victory led to the end of Spanish colonial rule in the Americas, resulting in the U.S. acquiring territories like Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. It marked the beginning of the U.S.'s emergence as a global imperial power and had significant implications for Latin America, particularly in the Caribbean.

Standard Fruit Company – The Standard Fruit Company, later known as Chiquita Brands International, was an American company that played a major role in the banana trade in Latin America during the 20th century. The company’s influence led to the term "banana republics" being coined, as it was associated with exploiting workers and manipulating political systems in countries like Honduras and Guatemala, where it had significant control over the economy and politics.

Term Limits – Term limits are legal restrictions that limit the number of terms an elected official can serve in a particular office. In Latin American politics, term limits are often implemented to prevent the concentration of power in the hands of a single individual, although they have been circumvented in some countries (e.g., through constitutional changes). Term limits are a key part of efforts to promote democratic transitions and prevent authoritarian rule.

Third Wave of Democratization (Samuel Huntington) – The Third Wave of Democratization, as identified by political scientist Samuel Huntington, refers to the global trend of democratization that began in the mid-1970s and continued through the 1990s. This wave saw the fall of many authoritarian regimes, particularly in Latin America, as countries transitioned to democratic governments. Huntington’s analysis highlighted key factors in the spread of democracy, such as economic development and the decline of authoritarianism.

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo – The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, signed in 1848, ended the Mexican-American War and resulted in Mexico ceding a vast portion of its northern territory to the United States, including present-day California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas. The treaty established the Rio Grande as the border between Texas and Mexico, significantly altering the political landscape of North America.

Unicameralism – Unicameralism refers to a system of government where the legislature consists of only one chamber, as opposed to bicameralism, which has two. Many countries in Latin America, such as Cuba and Bolivia, have unicameral legislatures. Unicameralism can make the legislative process more efficient but might also limit the checks and balances that a second legislative chamber can provide.

USS Maine Incident – The USS Maine Incident refers to the explosion of the U.S. battleship USS Maine in Havana harbor in 1898, which killed 266 American sailors. The explosion was a key event that led to the outbreak of the Spanish-American War. While the cause of the explosion remains unclear, the event fueled U.S. public opinion against Spain and was used as a pretext for war, which eventually resulted in Spain losing its colonies in the Americas.

Veto – A veto is the power of an executive authority, typically the president, to reject a decision or proposal made by a legislative body. In Latin American political systems, a veto can be used to prevent legislation from passing or to block certain policies. The veto is an essential check within the system of checks and balances, ensuring that the executive has oversight over the legislature.

Walker, William – William Walker was an American filibuster (adventurer) who briefly became the president of Nicaragua in the mid-19th century. In 1855, he invaded Nicaragua with a private army, hoping to expand American influence and establish English-speaking colonies in Central America. Walker’s rule, which was backed by pro-slavery forces, ended in 1857 when a coalition of Central American countries overthrew him, and he was executed.

Westminster Model – The Westminster Model refers to a system of parliamentary democracy that originated in the United Kingdom and is characterized by a strong executive led by the prime minister, a cabinet, and a parliament that holds the government accountable. Many countries in Latin America, such as those in the Caribbean, adopted elements of the Westminster Model, though they have adapted it to their unique political contexts. The model emphasizes democratic principles, political accountability, and the rule of law.

Yellow Journalism – Yellow journalism refers to a style of journalism that sensationalizes and exaggerates stories to attract attention and sell newspapers. It was particularly prominent in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, especially in the U.S. and Latin America, during the Spanish-American War. Yellow journalism often played a role in stirring up public sentiment, such as by inflaming tensions between the U.S. and Spain, and contributing to military intervention in foreign conflicts.