Myers' Psychology Second Edition for AP Unit 8: Motivation, Emotion, and Stress 

Module 37: Motivational Concepts 

• Motivation is caused by both nature and nurture 
• Nature pushes
• Nurture pulls 
• Instinct theory focuses on genetically predisposed behaviors
• Drive reduction theory focuses on pulls and pushes
• Arousal theory focuses on stimulation 
• Hierarchy of needs puts some wants over others

Instincts and Evolutionary Psychology 

• Early psychologists were just naming instincts rather than explaining them 
• Instincts are unlearned and are usually patterns 
• Genes can cause some of our instincts 

Drives and Incentives 

• The drive reduction theory proposes that a need will create an aroused state. An organism will then try to diminish this state
• When a need increases, so does the drive
• Homeostasis is maintaining a steady internal state
• We are pushed to reduce drives
• We are pulled by incentives 
• Incentives can be positive or negative environmental stimuli 
• If there is both a need and an incentive we are strongly driven 

Optimum Arousal 

• Some motivated behaviors occur because we want to increase arousal 
• People like this are often called "sensation seekers" 
• We try to balance too much stimulation and not enough stimulation 
• Yerkes Dodson law suggests that we search for the optimum level 

A Hierarchy of Motives

• Some needs are more important than others 
• Our needs can be explained through a pyramids 
• At the base are physiological needs: food, water, and air 
• Then comes safety 
• Belongingness and love needs are next
• Then esteem needs
• Self actualization and self transcendence needs are at the top 
• Each person's needs will differ based on environment and lifestyle 

Module 38: Hunger Motivation 

The Physiology of Hunger

• People have stomach contractions when they feel hungry 
• Hunger can persist even if there are no stomach "pangs" 
• Hunger comes because of multiple reasons 

Body Chemistry and the Brain 

• Body energy is stored in the blood sugar glucose 
• If your blood sugar drops, your internal organs will send messages to your brain. Your brain will then relay these messages as hunger
• Several neural areas work to transfer the idea of hunger 
• Blood vessels supply the hypothalamus 
• Humans have appetite hormones 
• If body weight rises, hunger decreases and energy expenditure increases
• If body weight decreases, hunger increases and energy expenditure decreases 
• Weight tends to stay around a "set point"
• Other psychologists prefer to call it a "set range" 
• Our basal metabolic rate measures how much energy we use for basic bodily functions 

The Psychology of Hunger

Taste Preferences: Biology and Culture 

• Environment can influence when and what we are hungry for
• Carbohydrates help boost serotonin which leads to a calming effect
• When stressed we prefer sweet foods 
• Preferences can be genetic 
• Conditioning an intensify or alter preferences 
• Culture teaches that some foods are acceptable and others are not 
• Environment can play a factor because certain ingredients can only be found in certain parts of the world 
• We tend to avoid unfamiliar food but we can get bored of eating the same food over and over again 

Situational Influences on Eating 

• When we are in group settings we tend to amplify our natural behaviors. So at a party you are more likely to eat more 
• Portion size influences out hunger 
• Food variety influences our choices 

Obesity and Weight Control 

The Physiology of Obesity 

• Fat is an ideal form of stored energy 
• Obesity is sign of affluence and social status 
• Obesity increases the risk of diabetes, high blood pressure, heart disease, gallstones, arthritis, cancer, and shorter life expectancy 

Set Point and Metabolism 

• When a person becomes fat, they require less food to maintain their weight 
• Fat has a lower metabolic rate than muscle 
• When a person's weight drops below the set point, hunger increases and metabolism decreases 
• Lean people burn more calories 

The Genetic Factor 

• A child's weight will resemble their biological parents 
• Identical twins will be almost the same weight

The Food and Activity Factors 

• Those with sleep loss are more vulnerable to obesity 
• People with obese friends are more likely to be obese 
• In today's society, we are eating more and moving less, which makes becoming obese much easier 

Module 39: Sexual Motivation 

The Physiology of Sex

The Sexual Response Cycle 

• The sexual response cycle is made up of four stages: excitement, plateau, orgasm, and resolution 
• In the excitement stage, genital areas are filled with blood. 
• During the plateau phase, excitement peaks
• Breathing, pulse, and blood pressure will increase 
• Muscle contractions occur during the orgasm 
• During an orgasm, the uterus is put in a position to accept sperm 
• The feeling of sexual release is the same in both sexes 
• After an orgasm, the body will return to an unaroused state
• During the resolution phase, the male will enter the refractory period
• A male cannot orgasm again while in the refractory period
• Refractory periods can last from minutes to days 
• A females refractory period is very short 

Sexual Dysfunctions and Paraphilias 

• Some people cannot complete the sexual response cycle 
• Sexual dysfunctions consistently impair sexual arousal or functioning 
• Some people lack sensual energy or arousability 
• Men can have erectile disorders or premature ejaculation 
• Women cna have pain or female orgasmic disorders, where they can never experience an orgasm 
• Therapy and help with sexual dysfunctions 
• Viagra can also help 
• Paraphilias are people who experience sexual arousal in unusual ways
• Paraphilias include exhibitionism, fetishes, and unfortunately pedophilia 

Hormones and Sexual Behavior 

• Sex hormones direct he physical development of sex characteristics and activate sexual behavior 
• Estrogens often peak during ovulation 
• Male hormones are constant 
• Both males and females have testosterone, but it is more prevalent in men 
• Hormones levels can activate as a response to sexual stimulation 
• Seculat stimulation increases during puberty 
• As you get older, sex hormone levels decline 

The Psychology of Sex

External Stimuli 

• Men become aroused when they see, hear, or, read erotic material 
• Women will also be aroused, but it is less noticeable 
• With repeated exposure, the sexual drive can become limited
• Viewing these images can have a negative effect and people cna start to view their partners as less attractive 

Imagined Stimuli

• The brain is also a sex organ 
• Our imagination can influence sexual arousal and desire 
• Both men and women have sexual fantasies 
• Men often fantasize more 

Module 40: Social Motivation Affiliation Needs

The Benefits of Belonging

• Social bonds boost survival chances
• Attachment can help a person be protected from threats
• Cooperation enhances survival 
• More people hunting increases the chances of bringing back food
• Humans are social creatures
• Relationships can make unenjoyable things more bearable 
• Social behaviors try to increase the feeling of belonging
• Humans build and maintain friendships/relationships 
• Love is a natural painkiller
• Some people prefer to stay in an abusive relationship over being alone
• Insecure anxious attachment is constantly craving acceptance but afraid of rejection
• Insecure avoidant attachment is not wanting to get close to others 

The Pain of Being Shut Out

• Social exclusion is called ostracism 
• Ostracism is used as a form of punishment 
• The feeling of loneliness can spread from one person to the next
• Cyberostracism is on the rise with the more frequent use of technology 
• The pain we feel during ostracism is the same as physical pain 
• Behaviors can be influenced by pain 

Connecting and Social Networking

Mobile Networks and Social Media

• Humans connect through talking, texting, chatting, posting, gaming, and emailing 
• Many people of all ages and from all countries use a cell phone to communicate 
• Texting and emailing have become more popular 
• We try to fit in on social media by having lots of friends 

The Social Effects of Social Networking 

• The internet is a social amplifier 
• The internet greatly affects our relationships 

Have Social Networking Sites Made Us More, Or Less, Socially Isolated? 

• Lonely people spend lots of time online 
• The internet has diversified social networks 
• The internet can help us stay in touch with friends and family 
• Using the internet can take up lots of time and attention 

Does Electronic Communication Stimulate Healthy Self Disclosure? 

• Humans tend to confide in others
• When communicating online, we do not care about the other person's reactions as much
• Humans are more likely to share things online than in person 
• Online communication can deepen friendships 
• However, face to face conversations are more meaningful

Do Social Networking Profiles and Posts Reflect People's Actual Personalities? 

• Internet predators are real
• Most of the time real people and their real personalities are online 
• Online profiles accurately reflect people 

Does Social Networking Promote Narcissism? 

• Narcissists are often highly active on social platforms 
• They have superficial friends 
• Their photos tend to be highly photoshopped 

Module 41: Theories and Physiology of Emotion 

• Emotions can act as motivation
• Emotions are a body's adaptive response
• Emotions can increase our chances of survival

Cognition and Emotion

• Emotions involve physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience

Historical Emotion Theories

James Lange Theory: Arousal Comes Before Emotion 

• Common sense says "we cry because we are sad"
• James and Lange believed conscious awareness came before feeling 
• Feelings follow bodily responses 

Cannon Bard Theory: Arousal and Emotion Occur Simultaneously 

• Cannon and Bard thought the opposite of James and Lange
• They said boyd responses are too similar and change too slowly to cause different emotions
• They believe body responses and emotions occur at the same time
• Those who have examined spinal cord injuries disagree with this theory 
• Emotions do involve cognition 

Cognition Can Define Emotion: Schachter and Singer 

• Schachter and Singer believe emotional experiences require a conscious interpretation of arousal
• They believe physical reactions and thoughts create emotion 
• Emotions need physical arousal and cognitive appraisal 
• Arousal from one event can spill over into the next 
• Arisual fuels emotion while cognition channels it 

Cognition May Not Precede Emotion: Zajonc, LeDoux, and Lazarus 

• We can have emotional responses that happen before or separate from the interpretation of an event
• Emotionally significant information tends to stick 
• Complex emotions take a "high road" and go to a cortex to be analyzed and labeled
• Some emotions take the "low road" which is basically a shortcut to the cortex
• Sometimes our emotions happen so fast that we are unaware that they are occuring 
• It is easier for our emotions to influence our thinking than our thinking to influence our emotions 
• Some emotional responses do not require conscious thinking 
• Personalized events can lead to a person making general assumptions about an overall experience

Embodied Emotion 

Emotions and the Autonomic Nervous System 

• The autonomic nervous system mobilizes your body for action 
• When this happens the liver will pour extra sugar into the bloodstream
• Because we need more oxygen, heart rate, blood pressure, and breathing rates will increase
• Digestion slows down 
• Pupils dilate 
• Sweating occurs 
• When a "crisis" passes, the parasympathetic division will calm your body and the opposite effects will occur 

The Physiology of Emotions

• Fear, anger, and arousal are very similar in the physiological sense
• The insula is activated when we feel many emotions including lust, pride, and disgust 
• Although some feelings are similar, they feel and look different from person to person 
• Different areas of the brain can be involved with different emotions 

Module 42: Expressed Emotion 

Detecting Emotion in Others 

• Humans give off nonverbal cues toward their emotions 
• Humans are very capable of detecting nonverbal threats
• Experience can make us sensitive to particular emotions
• There is a difference between our real smile and our fake smile
• It is difficult to detect deceiving emotions
• Introverts are better at reading people's emotions 
• It is difficult to determine emotions through online communication

Gender, Emotion, and Nonverbal Behavior 

• Women are generally better at reading emotional cues
• Men describe things with simple emotions whereas women are more elaborate
• Women are more open to discuss feelings than men
• Anger tends to be in men more than women
• Women are more empathetic than men 
• Women can experience emotions more deeply than men 

Culture and Emotional Expression

• Gestures vary with culture 
• Some signs, mainly ones made with the hands, that are appropriate in one country may be inappropriate in another
• Facial expressions are more universal
• Blind people often have the same facial expressions as anyone else
• Music also has universal sound of happy vs sad
• Similes are emotional and social 
• How much emotion we express varies from country to country 

The Effects of Facial Expressions

• Expressions can amplify and regulate emotions 
• The facial feedback effect means that our muscle states can affect our emotions 
• Emotions can affect our health 

Module 43: Stress and Health

• Stress often strikes without warning 
• Many students experience stress
• Stress can give you a headache or deprive you of sleep 

Stress: Some Basic Concepts 

• Stress the process of how we perceive and respond to certain events
• The stressor is the event that causes our emotions 
• The emotional response is the stress reaction 
• Stress comes more from how we react to events than the events themselves 
• Stressors can have positive effects 
• Extreme or prolonged stress can cause harm 

Stressors--Things That Push Our Buttons 

• There are three main types of stressors: catastrophes, significant life changes, and daily hassles
• All three types of stressors can be toxic 

Catastrophes 

• Catastrophes are unpredictable large scale events 
• Catastrophes are usually perceived as threatening 
• Emotional and physical damage can be significant 
• People tend to relocate after a catastrophe, which can bring even more stress

Significant Life Changes

• Even happy events can feel stressful 
• Many changes happen during young adulthood
• Young adults tend to have lots of stress

Daily Hassles 

• Daily hassles include traffic, siblings, lines, friends, etc 
• Some people can shrug off these hassles, but for others they just keep adding up 
• Stress can take a toll on mental health and well being 
• Stress can also come from an economic standpoint 
• Prolonged stress can damage the cardiovascular system 

The Stress Response System 

• Stress hormones include epinephrine and norepinephrine 
• Stress hormones can cause the fight or flight response 
• The body's response to stress is very general and reacts to lots of different things 
• The general adaptation syndrome states that the body's response to stress happens in three ways: alarm, resistance, exhaustion 
• During the alarm phase the sympathetic nervous system is activated 
• During resistance body temperature, blood pressure, and respiration are high 
• Stress hormones begin to release in the bloodstream during resistance 
• Exhaustion occurs when your body begins to run out. of energy, even if the stress has not passed
• You are vulnerable to illness and even death during exhaustion 
• People often support others during times of stress. This is referred to as the tend-and-befriend response 
• Men often isolate themselves while women join groups 

Module 44: Stress and Illness 

• Psychophysiological illnesses are "mind-body" illnesses. They are stress related and can range from hypertension to headaches 
• Stress makes it harder for us to defeat diseases 
• Psychoneuroimmunology studies how the mind and body work together to fight diseases and how the mind can affect the immune system 
• White blood cells, or lymphocytes, search and destroy "invaders" in the immune system 
• Macrophage identifies, pursues, and ingests harmful invaders 
• Natural killer cells pursue disease cells 
• Age, nutrition, genetics, body temperature and stress influence immune system activity 
• If the immune system responds to strongly, it can attack non infected organs 
• If it under reacts a person will continue to get very sick 
• Women tend to have stronger immune systems than men 
• Wounds heal slower in stressed people 
• Stressed people are more vulnerable to colds 

Stress and Susceptibility to Disease 

Stress and AIDS 

• AIDS stands for acquired immune deficiency syndrome 
• AIDS is caused by HIV 
• HIV stands for human immunodeficiency virus 
• AIDS is exchanged through the exchange of bodily fluids, primarily blood and semen 
• AIDS also kills slowly 
• Stress cannot give people AIDS 
• Stress can speed up the transition from and HIV infection to the AIDS disease 
• People with AIDS and stress may experience a faster decline 
• AIDS is more treatable, but preventing HIV is the safest option 

Stress and Cancer 

• Stress does not create cancer 
• A healthy immune system can help beat cancer 
• Stressed cells are more prone to developing cancer 
• Cancer is also more likely to be in people who have depression, helplessness, or bereavement 

Stress and Heart Disease 

• Stress is more closely linked to coronary heart diseases 
• Coronary heart disease are the clogging/closing of vessels that help the heart 
• Smoking, obesity, high fat diet, physical inactivity, elevated cholesterol, can also factor into coronary heart disease 
• Stress can lead to an increase in heart attack risk 
• Type A people are more reactive, competitive, impatient, time conscious, aggressive, easily angered
• Type B people are more easy going and relaxed 
• Type A people are more likely to have heart attacks
• Suppressing negative emotions can also increase the risk of heart attacks
• Those who are happier tend to live longer than those who have depression