Philosophy Final

• Moral Objectivism: There are objective moral truths that apply to all people regardless of culture or personal belief.

• Moral Relativism: Moral truths are not universal; they depend on cultural or individual perspectives.

• Moral Subjectivism: Morality is based on individual feelings or opinions—“what’s right for me.”

• Moral Cultural Relativism: Right and wrong are determined by cultural norms. No culture’s ethics are superior to another’s.

Utilitarianism (Mill)

• Utilitarianism: An ethical theory that actions are right if they promote the greatest happiness for the greatest number.

• Greatest Happiness Principle: The right action is the one that increases overall happiness or pleasure and reduces pain.

Three Theoretical Components

1. Consequentialism: Only consequences matter in determining morality.

2. Hedonism: Happiness (or pleasure) is the only intrinsic good.

3. Egalitarianism: Everyone’s happiness counts equally.

Three Problems with Utilitarianism

1. Omniscience: We can't predict all consequences.

2. Rights: It can justify violating individual rights for the majority's happiness.

3. Injustice: It may lead to morally unjust outcomes (e.g., punishing an innocent person for social peace).

Kantian Ethics (Kant)

• Deontology: Ethics based on duty and rules, not consequences.

• Maxim: A principle or rule you would follow; Kant asks whether it could be universalized.

• A Good Will: The only thing that is good without qualification; acting out of duty for the sake of duty.

• Hypothetical Imperative: Commands that apply only if you want a particular result (“If you want X, do Y”).

• Categorical Imperative: Unconditional moral law; applies to everyone, always.

Two Key Formulations of the Categorical Imperative

1. Universal Law: Act only on a maxim you can will to be a universal law.

2. Formula of Humanity: Treat others always as ends in themselves, never merely as means.

Theistic Theories

• Divine Command Theory (DCT): Morality is determined by God’s commands; an act is right if God commands it.

• Theistic Natural Law Theory: Morality is grounded in human nature and reason, as designed by God; good is what fulfills our natural purpose.

THE MEANING OF LIFE

(Readings: Chapter Ten, Sartre, Camus, Beauvoir)

Broad Views

• Theistic Viewpoint: Life’s meaning comes from God’s purpose for us.

• Atheistic Existentialism: Life has no inherent meaning; it’s up to us to create meaning through our choices.

• Objectivist Humanism: Even without God, humans can find objective values and purposes through reason and human flourishing.

Key Thinkers

• Sartre – “Existence Precedes Essence”: We exist first, then define ourselves through actions. There is no fixed human nature—freedom and responsibility define us.

• Camus – The Absurd: Conflict between our desire for meaning and a meaningless universe.

  • Absurd Hero: Someone who embraces the absurd and lives with passion and defiance (e.g., Sisyphus).

• Beauvoir – Woman as “The Other”: Society defines woman in relation to man, denying her subjectivity. Women are socially made into "others" rather than full agents.

W.E.B. Du Bois

• Double Consciousness: The internal conflict African Americans feel from seeing themselves through their own eyes and through the lens of a racist society.

CAN FILM REALLY BE PHILOSOPHY?

(Readings: Hanson, Russell, Lutfiyya, Frowe)

• Hanson: Film can uniquely show self-deception visually, without words—capturing how we lie to ourselves.

• Russell: Film struggles to do rigorous argumentation, but it can illustrate ideas. Philosophy is better at precise logic; film is better at evoking experience.

• Lutfiyya: Films can be like thought experiments, but often lack clarity or focus and can mislead if not critically examined.

• Frowe:

  • Biological Life: Life as a physical organism.

  • Biographical Life: Life as a story with personal identity, goals, and meaning.