Comparative Government

Politics: These are authoritative and refer to activities associated with controlling public decisions among a given people and within a territory. (Political decision making)

Political Systems: These types of social systems can make authoritative public decisions. They have interdependent parts and boundaries toward the environment with which they interact. 

Political decision-making:  Political decisions are social, public, and authoritative 

Public Sphere deals with collective decisions that extend beyond the individual and involve government action (town hall, for example). It is opposite to the private sphere, which refers to issues on a more personal basis, like privacy.

Thomas Hobbes: state of nature: a very pessimistic individual who believed that the state of nature was like an existence where every man is for himself in society; inhospitable nature

Public goods: commodity or service that is provided without profit to all members of society

Libertarians: Libertarians seek to maximize autonomy and political freedom, emphasizing equality before the law and civil rights to freedom of association, freedom of speech, freedom of thought, and freedom of choice; minimize government interference

GNP vs. GDP: Gross Domestic Product (GDP) calculates the total value of the final goods and services produced within a country's borders. It should be made within the year and created at the country's border.

Ex. Toyota car manufacturing factory located in America, and within a year, the total value of all the cars produced will go into America's GDP 

In contrast, Gross National Product (GNP) calculates the total value of the goods and services a country's residents produce, regardless of location.

Toyota is a Japanese company, so the value of cars made in America and other countries will contribute to Japan's GNP.

State: A particular type of political system that has sovereignty over a population in a given territory 

Nation-state: A nation-state is a form of political organization in which a relatively homogeneous group inhabits a sovereign state. The nation has a cultural and ethnic identity, and the state is a political entity with a defined territory, government, and recognized sovereignty. Nation-states often seek to promote national unity and identity among their citizens. Cases in which national identification and the scope of legal authority largely coincide are called nation-states.

Ex. Japan and Thailand, where Thai is a common identity, and the government has governed rule over the population 

Keep nation-states distinct from multination states like America and india. 

Purchasing Power Parity (PPP): This is an economic theory and method for comparing the relative value of different countries' currencies through the cost of a basket of goods. PPP adjusts for differences in price levels between countries, providing a more accurate measure of economic output and living standards. 

Ex. The Big Mac Index compares the price of Big Macs in two countries. This allows us to compare the currencies and close the pricing differences in the two countries, allowing us to examine economies. 

HDI (Human Development Index): The UN uses this measure to indicate the success or failure of a nation's well-being by combining education rate, economic well-being, and life expectancy. 

GINI Index: The GINI Index measures income inequality within a population. It ranges from 0 to 1 (or 0 to 100), where 0 represents perfect equality (everyone has the same income) and 1 (or 100) represents perfect inequality (one person has all the income). A higher GINI index indicates greater inequality.

Collective goods: Collective goods, or public goods, are resources or services provided by the government or a community that are non-excludable and non-rivalrous. This means they are available to all members of society, and one person’s use doesn’t reduce their availability to others. Examples include clean air, national defense, and public parks.

Sovereignty: Sovereignty refers to a state's authority to govern itself or another state. It involves the power to make laws, enforce them, and oversee the territory without interference from external authorities. Sovereignty is a fundamental principle of international law. Recognized by other nations

Three Waves of Democracy: The Three Waves of Democracy refer to the historical periods during which large numbers of countries transitioned to democratic forms of government:

1. First Wave (1828-1926): Rooted in the American and French Revolutions, with the expansion of voting in Western Europe and North America. (period after WW1).

2. Second Wave (1943-1962): Post-World War II democratization in defeated countries, like Germany and Japan, Taiwan, and former colonies (African nations) gaining independence.  (End of WW2)

3. Third Wave (1974-the- 1990s): The global surge in democratization started with Portugal and Spain and continued through Latin America, Asia, and Eastern Europe (States previously part of the Soviet Union) after the Cold War.T Russia, China, Mexico, Iran, Nigeria, and the United Kingdom

Comparing Cultures and Political Institutions: This involves examining how cultural factors, such as values, beliefs, and norms, influence the structure, function, and behavior of political institutions in different societies. This comparison explains variations in governance, political stability, and policy outcomes across countries.

National Identity: National identity is a sense of belonging to a nation and a belief in its political aspirations. It encompasses cultural, historical, and social bonds that create a shared identity among a state's citizens.

Most widespread world religion: Christianity has the most significant adherents globally.

Fastest-growing world religion: Islam is currently considered the fastest-growing world religion due to high birth rates in Muslim-majority countries and conversions.

Why government policy priorities vary: Government policy priorities vary due to cultural values, economic conditions, political ideologies, interest group pressures, and the specific needs and challenges facing a country at a given time. Different political systems and leadership styles also influence how priorities are set.

Religious Fundamentalism:  Religious fundamentalism refers to a strict adherence to specific theological doctrines typically in opposition to modernism. It often involves the belief that religious texts and teachings should be interpreted literally and that society should be governed according to spiritual principles.

Civil liberties: Civil liberties are the fundamental rights and freedoms guaranteed to individuals as protection from government overreach. These include freedom of speech, freedom of the press, freedom of assembly, and the right to privacy.

Civil rights: Civil rights are the protections and privileges given to all citizens by law, ensuring equal treatment under the law and protection against discrimination based on race, gender, disability, etc.

Political efficacy: Political efficacy refers to the belief that one's political participation makes a difference. It has two components: internal efficacy (confidence in one's abilities to understand and influence political events) and external efficacy (the belief that the government will respond to one's demands).

Federal / Confederal / Unitary:

Federal System: A system where power is divided between central and regional governments (states or provinces). Examples include the United States and Germany.

(Nigeria, Russia, Mexico)

Confederal System: A system where regional governments hold more power than the central government. The central government has limited authority, and member states retain sovereignty. An example is the European Union.

Unitary System: A system where the central government holds all legal power and may delegate authority to local governments. Examples include France and Japan.

(UK, China, Iran?)

Decentralization / Devolution: 

Decentralization: The transfer of administrative powers from the central government to local or regional authorities.

Devolution: A specific type of decentralization where the central government grants powers to regional or local governments but retains the right to revoke those powers.

Developing countries: Developing countries are nations with a lower level of industrialization, lower standards of living, and lower Human Development Index (HDI) scores compared to developed countries, and they have a high population. These countries often have higher poverty levels and less access to education and healthcare.

Industrialized countries: Industrialized countries, also known as developed countries, have high levels of industrialization, higher standards of living, and advanced technological infrastructure, low population. These countries typically have higher GDP per capita and lower levels of poverty.

Parliamentary system: A parliamentary system is a form of government where the executive branch(lawmakers) derives its legitimacy and authority from the legislature (parliament) and is accountable to it. The head of state usually differs from the head of government, often the prime minister.

Functions of political systems: Political systems have several vital functions, including maintaining order, providing public services, ensuring national security, managing the economy, and protecting citizens' rights and liberties. These functions help stabilize society and provide the framework for governance.

Communism: Communism is a political and economic ideology advocating for a classless society in which all property and resources are communally owned, and wealth is distributed according to need. The state typically controls all means of production, and private ownership is minimized.

Outputs: In political science, outputs refer to the decisions and actions taken by the government in response to public demands and needs, including laws, policies, and regulations.

Liberal Democracy: Liberal democracies have a political system marked not only by free and fair elections but also by the rule of law (The idea that no one is above the law), separation of powers, and the protection of fundamental liberties of speech, assembly, religion, and property.

Legitimacy: When they feel like they have the right to rule

Adjudication: Judging the dispute between people

Large N studies: Large N studies involve research that uses many cases or observations (the "N" refers to the sample size) to identify patterns, test theories, and draw generalizable conclusions. Usually involves statistics in its study. This approach is common in quantitative political science research.

Political theories: Political theories are frameworks for understanding, interpreting, and analyzing political phenomena. They include ideas and concepts that explain how governments should function, the nature of power and authority, and the role of citizens in governance. Examples include realism, liberalism, Marxism, and constructivism.

Variables (dependent, independent): 

Dependent Variable: The outcome or effect researchers try to explain or predict in a study. It depends on the influence of other variables.

Independent Variable: The factor manipulated or varied by the researcher to observe its effect on the dependent variable.

Structural-functional mapping of government: Structural-functional mapping analyzes political systems by examining their structures (institutions) and functions (roles). This approach helps identify how different system parts contribute to their stability and functioning.

Political Socialization: Political socialization is how individuals acquire political beliefs, values, and behaviors. It occurs through various agents, such as family, schools, media, and peer groups, and shapes citizens' political identities and attitudes.

Political recruitment refers to how individuals are selected, groomed, and brought into political roles or offices.

Aristotle's "Politics" states that armed men are the citizens of a republic. Proper Form means the good of the people first, while perversion means the good of the government. 

True: Monarchy, Aristocracy, Constitution(Rule by all)

Perversion: Dictatorship, Oligarchy, Democracy

Political System: A set of institutions, processes, and norms through which a society organizes and manages its collective political and governmental activities. It encompasses the structure of government, power distribution, and political dynamics.

Dissidents: Individuals or groups who actively challenge and oppose the policies, actions, or legitimacy of a government or political system, often advocating for reform or revolutionary change.

Political Development: The processes through which a political system evolves, becomes more complex, and moves toward greater institutionalization, stability, democracy, and state capacity.

Political Participation: How citizens engage with the political process, including voting, protests, lobbying, joining political parties, or other means of influencing government actions.

Sovereignty: The ultimate authority within a territory, allowing a state to govern itself without external interference. It can refer to a government's control over its internal affairs and independence from external powers.

Liberal Democracies / Illiberal Democracies:

• Liberal Democracies: Political systems prioritizing free, fair elections, civil liberties, the rule of law, and the protection of minority rights.

• Illiberal Democracies: Systems that hold elections but lack some features of democracy, such as the independent judiciary, freedom of the press, and protection of civil liberties.

Head of State / Head of Government:

• Head of State: Represents the country symbolically and is often involved in ceremonial duties (e.g., monarch or president).

• Head of Government: Leads the executive branch, runs the government, and implements policies (e.g., prime minister).

Russian Revolution: A series of events in 1917 that led to the overthrowing of the Russian monarchy (Tsar Nicholas II) and the establishment of a communist government under the Bolsheviks, marking the start of Soviet rule.

Chinese Revolution: Refers to the Communist Revolution of 1949, where the Chinese Communist Party (led by Mao Zedong) overthrew the Nationalist government (Kuomintang - Chiang Kai Shek), establishing the People's Republic of China.

Political Pluralism: A political system in which multiple groups, interests, and ideologies are allowed to coexist, compete, and have a voice in policymaking.

Glorious Revolution: In 1688, King James II was overthrown in England, establishing a constitutional monarchy and parliamentary sovereignty with William and Mary as monarchs.

Revolution: A fundamental and often violent change in political power or organizational structures, typically overthrowing a government or existing political system.

Karl Marx: A 19th-century philosopher and economist known for his theories on capitalism, class struggle, and the development of communism, which laid the foundation for Marxist thought.

Bourgeoisie: In Marxist theory, the capitalist class owns the means of production and exploits the working class (proletariat).

Proletariat: According to Marxist theory, the working class is exploited by the bourgeoisie in capitalist systems and is seen as the revolutionary class.

Cleavage (socioeconomic, ideological): Socioeconomic cleavages divide people based on differences in economic status, such as income levels, wealth, occupation, or class. These divisions often result in varying political interests and policy preferences. 

EX, Class-based divisions (divisions between the working and the middle/upper class), and Rural-based divisions 

Perestroika: A policy introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union during the 1980s aimed at restructuring the economic and political system toward greater efficiency and market-oriented reforms.

Glasnost: A policy introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the Soviet Union in the 1980s that promoted openness, transparency, and freedom of information in government institutions and the media.

Communism: A political and economic ideology advocating for a classless society where the means of production are owned collectively, and the state is eventually abolished.

Legitimacy: The general belief that a government or political system has the right to rule and exercise authority, often derived from sources like tradition, charisma, or legal-rational systems.

Political Culture: The shared values, beliefs, and norms about politics and government a population holds, shaping their expectations and behavior in the political system.

Consensual Political Culture / Conflictual Political Culture:

• Consensual Political Culture: Where most citizens share common beliefs about the legitimacy of political processes and policies.

• Conflictual Political Culture: Where citizens are deeply divided on the legitimacy of the system or policies, leading to political instability.

Political Chasm: A significant gap or divide between different social groups, often over issues like ideology, religion, or economic interests, leading to political polarization.

La Mordida ("the bite" meaning corruption in Mexico): A colloquial term referring to bribes or corruption in Mexico, where payments are often made to expedite services or avoid legal consequences.

Class Conflict: Tensions or struggles between different social classes, often over economic interests and resources, which can lead to political movements or social change.

Communist Party / URP:

• Communist Party: A political party based on Marxist-Leninist ideology that seeks to establish a communist society.

• URP (United Russia Party): The dominant political party in Russia, closely associated with the governance of Vladimir Putin.

Twelver Shiism: The largest branch of Shia Islam, which believes in a line of twelve imams as the legitimate spiritual and political successors to the Prophet Muhammad.

Democracy: A political system where power is derived from the people through free, fair, and regular elections, with respect for civil liberties and the rule of law.

Authoritarianism: A political system characterized by a concentration of power in a leader or small group, limited political pluralism, and restrictions on individual freedoms.

Corporatism: A system where interest groups (e.g., labor unions, business groups) are formally integrated into the `decision-making processes of the government, often resulting in state control over these groups.

• Corporatism is often a partnership between the government, businesses, and labor unions.

• Working together to avoid conflict rather than having constant disagreements.

Participant Political Culture: A political culture in which citizens are actively involved in political activities such as voting, protests, and discussions about political issues.

Cultural Revolution (China): A social-political movement in China (1966-1976) led by Mao Zedong, the Cultural Revolution aimed to enforce communism by removing capitalist, traditional, and cultural elements from Chinese society.

Economic Reforms (China): Policies initiated in the late 1970s under Deng Xiaoping to transition China from a centrally planned economy to a market-oriented one, leading to significant economic growth.

NAFTA: The North American Free Trade Agreement, a trade bloc established in 1994 among the United States, Canada, and Mexico to eliminate trade barriers and promote economic integration.

Market Economy: An economic system in which production, prices, and distribution of goods are determined by supply and demand in a competitive market, with minimal government intervention.

1. United Kingdom - The Glorious Revolution (1688)

• Cause: Tensions between King James II, who attempted to increase royal power and promote Catholicism, and a Protestant-dominated Parliament and the public. Fear of a Catholic monarchy and autocratic rule fueled opposition.

• Government Response: King James II attempted to suppress opposition and maintain control but lost support from influential nobles and military leaders.

• Oppressor: King James II was seen as an oppressor due to his perceived disregard for parliamentary power and his efforts to centralize royal authority.

• Outcome: James II was deposed, and William III(Dutch) and Mary II were invited to rule jointly, leading to a constitutional monarchy and greater parliamentary control.

2. Russia - Russian Revolution (1917), (1989)

• Cause: Deep social and economic inequalities, military defeats in World War I, and the incompetence of Tsar Nicholas II’s autocratic rule—widespread discontent among peasants, workers, and soldiers.

• Government Response: The Tsarist government responded with repression, including violent crackdowns on protests (e.g., Bloody Sunday) and ineffective reforms, which further fueled revolutionary sentiment.

• Oppressor: The Tsarist regime, represented by Tsar Nicholas II, maintained power through autocracy, oppression of dissent, and failure to address social issues.

• Outcome: The February Revolution forced Tsar Nicholas II to abdicate, leading to a provisional government. The Bolshevik Revolution/October Revolution overthrew this provisional government, establishing a communist state.

3. China - Chinese Communist Revolution (1949)

• Cause: Long-standing civil war between the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) led by Mao Zedong and the Nationalist Party (Kuomintang/KMT) led by Chiang Kai-shek. Factors included dissatisfaction with corruption in the Nationalist government, poverty, and rural discontent.

• Government Response: The Nationalist government tried to suppress the CCP through military force, propaganda, and economic policies but was weakened by the Japanese invasion and subsequent war during World War II.

• Oppressor: The Nationalist government was seen as the oppressor due to its authoritarian policies, corruption, and inability to address the needs of the rural population.

• Outcome: The CCP defeated the Nationalist forces in the civil war, establishing the People's Republic of China, while the KMT retreated to Taiwan.

4. Mexico - Mexican Revolution (1910-1920)

• Cause: Widespread social inequality, concentration of land ownership, and political oppression under the dictatorship of Porfirio Díaz, who favored foreign investments and elites at the expense of the rural poor.

• Government Response: Díaz attempted to suppress opposition through censorship, imprisonment of opponents, and violent crackdowns on dissent.

• Oppressor: Porfirio Díaz’s regime maintained power through electoral fraud, repression, and the marginalization of the peasantry and indigenous populations.

• Outcome: The revolution resulted in the end of Díaz’s dictatorship, a series of power struggles, and the drafting of the 1917 Constitution, which aimed to address social reforms, land redistribution, and workers' rights.

5. Iran - Iranian Revolution (1979)

• Cause: Opposition to the Western-backed Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, whose policies of modernization, Westernization, and repression (such as through the SAVAK secret police) alienated traditional religious groups and political dissidents.

• Government Response: The Shah’s regime tried to suppress the revolution through mass arrests, violent crackdowns on demonstrations, and censorship, but this only intensified opposition.

• Oppressor: The Shah was viewed as the oppressor, representing foreign influence, secularism, and authoritarian rule, which clashed with traditional Islamic values.

• Outcome: The revolution succeeded in overthrowing the Shah, leading to the establishment of the Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Khomeini, significantly changing Iran’s political and social structure.

6. Nigeria - Nigerian Civil War (Biafran War, 1967-1970)   wrong notes(you need to know mostly about their independence from the great Britain - Nigeria has two revolutions we need to know about)

• Cause: Ethnic, regional, and economic tensions between Nigeria’s three major ethnic groups (Igbo, Yoruba, and Hausa-Fulani) following independence. The secession of the southeastern region (Biafra) led by the Igbo due to perceived marginalization and violence against their people sparked the conflict.

• Government Response: The Nigerian federal government, led by General Yakubu Gowon, opposed Biafra’s secession and sought to maintain national unity through military force, imposing a blockade and engaging in a bloody civil war.

• Oppressor: From the perspective of the Biafrans, the Nigerian federal government was the oppressor due to its efforts to block secession and its role in the humanitarian crisis caused by the blockade.

• Outcome: The war ended in 1970 with the defeat of Biafra, resulting in the region's reintegration into Nigeria. The conflict left deep scars, but 

• the government pursued a "no victor, no vanquished" policy to foster reconciliation.

Legitimacy

•    Key Concepts: Legitimacy is often derived from ideology, tradition, and charismatic leadership. A lack of legitimacy may lead to violence and instability.

•    Violence and Legitimacy: Violence is typically associated with systems that have low levels of legitimacy.

•    Co-optation: A technique used by governments to win support by bringing the opposition into the system.

•    Democratization: Supported by changing responses to modernity and market forces.

England

•    Civil Liberties and Human Rights: Protected by political tradition and public opinion rather than a single codified document.

•    Magna Carta: An early step in the development of England’s constitutional government.

•    Class and Party: Historical connection between class and party politics, although this has weakened.

•    Noblesse Oblige: A tradition where the upper classes felt responsible for the well-being of the lower classes.

•    Monarchy: Central to British traditions and political culture.

•    Common Law: The basis of the English legal system and contrasts with codified constitutions.

•    Political Stability: England is noted for its gradual political institutionalization, avoiding abrupt changes.

•    Socialization and Authority: Schools and families are key in shaping attitudes toward authority in England.

Russia

•    Maoism vs. Marxism-Leninism: Maoism in China emphasized the role of the peasantry and differed from the Soviet focus on industrial proletariat.

•    Stalin's Regime: Noted for its focus on indoctrination and suppression of civil liberties.

•    Gorbachev's Reforms: These aimed at addressing the economic stagnation and political rigidity of the USSR.

•    Political Satisfaction: Low in Russia when institutions are new and democracy scores are low.

•    Post-Stalin Legacies: Emphasized industrial workers, but often at the expense of other social groups.

•    Authoritarianism: The Soviet regime, especially under Stalin, was characterized by a hypercentralized government.

•    Soviet Legal Practices: Often criticized for being arbitrary and not providing equal access to legal representation.

•    Religious Influence: Post-Soviet Russia has seen an increase in the influence of the Russian Orthodox Church.

China

•    Maoism: Focused on the peasantry, communal relationships, and egalitarianism.

•    Confucianism: Stressed a hierarchical social structure and obedience to authority.

•    Post-Mao Reforms: Shifted focus toward economic liberalization and light industry.

•    Cultural Revolution: Marked by mass terror and a conservative backlash.

•    Mass Line: Leadership principle involving close communication between the Party and the masses.

•    Legal System: Criticized for excessive use of capital punishment and inadequate protection of rights.

•    Command Capitalism: A term contrasting with Maoist principles which emphasized collective ownership.

•    Xenophobia: An aspect of Maoist ideology, reflecting a distrust of foreign influences.

Mexico

•    Political Legacy: Includes social inequities, a history of revolution, and persistent corruption (mordida).

•    Caciquismo: Rule by local strongmen or political bosses.

•    Political Culture: Includes machismo and a reverence for revolutionary tradition.

•    Electoral Politics: Mexico has seen a proliferation of competitive political parties in recent history.

•    Educational System: Often reinforces class distinctions.

•    PRI: The political party that dominated Mexican politics for most of the 20th century.

•    Economic Stratification: A persistent issue, with deep historical roots.

•    Mordida: The practice of bribery, indicative of systemic corruption.

Iran

•    Dual Legitimacy System: Combines theocratic and democratic elements.

•    Shi'a Islam: The religious foundation of the state, legitimizing the political system.

•    Islamic Law: Sharia is the legal framework that informs governance and social conduct.

•    Criticism of Westoxication: Reflects tension between embracing and resisting Western cultural influences.

•    Theocracy: Religious leaders hold significant power over the state apparatus.

•    Revolutionary Guard: A powerful military and political force in Iran.

•    Economic Policy: Influenced by religious doctrine and often resistant to Western-style capitalism.

•    Media: Plays a significant role in political socialization, often controlled by the state.

Nigeria

•    Colonial Legacy: The British colonization has left a significant imprint on Nigeria’s political and legal systems.

•    Ethnic Diversity: Nigeria's political culture is influenced by its diverse ethnic makeup.

•    Religious Division: A significant factor in political and social life, with Islam predominantly in the north.

•    Language: English serves as the official language, a vestige of colonial rule.

•    Oil Economy: Dominates and influences political dynamics in Nigeria.

•    Military Influence: Has played a significant role in Nigeria’s political history.

•    Prebendalism: A political system where elected officials and government workers feel they have a right to a share of government revenues.

•    Corruption and Reform: Ongoing issues in Nigerian politics, affecting legitimacy and governance.