Critical thinking final

Obstacles to critical thinking regarding fake images:

• Confirmation bias (individuals favor information that aligns with their existing beliefs)

• Emotional response (distort people judgment based off feelings rather than evidence)

To overcome these obstacles: recognize and challenge your own biases by seeking disconfirming evidence and having a skeptical attitude towards information

Propaganda: both truth and false information to sway opinions

Lies: deliberate falsehoods mean to mislead

Illegitimate reasons for dismissing information:

• Rejecting claims that contradict personal belief

• Dismissing information based solely  on sources reputation

• Relying on gut feelings instead of evidence 

How does fake news primarily affect society:

• Undermines trust in democratic institutions

• False narratives erode public trust in news sources and government and this distrust destabilizes democratic process, hindering informed decision making and civil engagement

• It also fuel polarization and social unrest

Reading laterally: it reveals the credibility of the source

• Media micro-targets specific voter groups by using data analysis to identify individual preferences and concerns

• Allows political ads to be tailored to resonated with specific demographics, maximizing their impact making these ads more effective than traditional advertising methods

Ex:a political ad promoting green policies might be shown primary to voters who previously engaged with environmental content online and this targeted approach increases the likelihood of resonating with those voters and influencing their opinions

Which type of advertising is described as being the most precise and targeted in history?

• Online advertising: data that precisely target specific demographics and interest, making it the most precise and targeted form of advertising ever

Splicing: combining unrelated footage to create misleading narritates (cutting)

splicing=stitching

doctoring=disgusing 

Doctoring: altering images or sounds to misrepresent reality

• The techniques enhance the emotional appeal of political ads

• They raise significant concerns about misinformation and public trust

• These methods can also lead viewers to accept manipulated content truth

Identification in advertising: 

• Creates a connection between consumer and product that fosters a sense of trust and relatability

• This makes consumers more likely to purchase and engage with this product

• Establishes emotional bonds rather than provideing purely objective information

• Ex: a commercial featuring a relatable character faces everyday challenges similar to the target audience. The character might use a specific product to overcome these challenges and by seeing themselves in the character’s situation, consumers are more likely to feel connected to the brain and consider purchasing it

Paid search ads (psa): ads that pay to appear first in the search engine

Display ads(dpa): ads attempt to capture the attention of the viewer that’s scrolling online when you aren’t searching for a product or service

DIFFERENCES: 

• Psa: shows content to consumers that search for it and shows ads on search englines, text based

• Dpa: appears on websites, apps, and platforms, visual ads

Chapter 10:

Internal consistency: Internal consistency means that all the questions in a test or survey measure the same thing. 

• For example, in a happiness survey, all questions should focus on how happy someone feels. If some questions are about happiness and others about sadness, the test would have low internal consistency.

Two types of consistency and how’s it’s involves in evaluating an explanation:

• Internal consistency ensures that all parts of an explanation logically fit together, while external consistency checks if it aligns with real-world evidence.

Criteria of Adequacy: standards used to evaluate the quality of explanations, theories, and hypothesis. These criteria help determine whether a given explanation or theory is credible, logical, and likely to be true. 

Types: (The Friendly Scientist Stays Curious)

Testability: The theory or explanation must be testable through observation, experimentation, or analysis. If it can't be tested, we can't evaluate its truth or reliability.

Fruitfulness: the potential to generate new insights

Scope: the capacity to explain a wide range of phenomena 

Simplicity: A simpler explanation (fewer assumptions or complexities) is generally preferred over a more complicated one, as long as it explains the phenomenon effectively.

Conservatism: A theory should fit well with established knowledge. It shouldn't conflict unnecessarily with well-supported facts or existing theories.

Example

Imagine two theories for why the sky is blue:

Theory 1: Light scattering in the atmosphere causes blue light to be more visible.

Theory 2: Invisible blue fairies paint the sky every morning.

• Testability: Theory 1 can be tested by studying light scattering, while Theory 2 cannot.

• Fruitfulness: Theory 1 leads to further research in physics and optics; Theory 2 doesn’t.

• Scope: Theory 1 explains many optical phenomena, like sunsets; Theory 2 explains only the sky’s color.

• Simplicity: Theory 1 relies on established physics; Theory 2 introduces fairies without evidence.

• Conservatism: Theory 1 aligns with known physics; Theory 2 contradicts it.

Test formula:

1. State the theory and check for consistency

2. Assess the evidence for the theory

3. Scrutize alternative theories

4. Test the theories with the criteria of adequacy

Theoretical explanation: an idea or concept that tries to explain how something works or why something happens based on theories or models

Causal explanation: a type of theoretical explanation that describes why something has happened by showing the cause and effect

the minimum requirement of consistency is that any theory worth considering must have internal and external consistency aka be free of contradictions and be consistent with the data the theory is supposed to explain

Motivated reasoning: accepting claims without evidence and having a bias towards confirming pre-existing beliefs/people use their feeling or biases to guide their thinking

-prioritzes desired conclusions over truth

Political tribalism: a strong loyalty to their political group or ideology that often leads to them prioritizing group identity over objective facts or reasoning

• Tend to view political issues as us vs them

• Engages in motivated reasoning

Hyper Partisan thinking: an extreme of political bias where individuals are extremely loyal to their political party or ideology and are strong opposed to the other side

• Leads to us vs them mentality and often no room for compromise

• Sticking to beliefs despite overwhelming evidence

• Relies on emotions over facts in arguments

• Insults or mocking opposing viewpoints

DIFFERENT BETWEEN POLITICAL TRIBALSM AND HYPER PARTISAN THINKUNG:

• Political tribialism focuses on group identity and belonging and hyperpartisan focuses on the political divde

Fallacies:

Appeal to personal certainty: trying to prove a claim based off feelings, not because of facts

Straw man, “nutpicking”: taking a member of an opposition grou and treating them as a representation of the entire group

Strawman, radicaling the opposition: turning a reasonable proposition into a unqualified, radical proposition

Whataboutism: the opposition of an accusation by arguing that an opponent is guilty of an equally bad or worse offense

Motivism: dismissing an argument because you believed the argos motives are bad

Worldview: a comprehensive set of personal beliefs and values that shapes understanding of the world and guides decision-making across various aspects

• Influences how we ineroret evens, define right and wrong, and determine our purpose 

Ex: Religious Worldview:

A person with a Christian worldview might believe that life has a divine purpose, guided by God, and that morality is defined by the teachings of the Bible. This worldview shapes how they view events (e.g., seeing natural disasters as part of God's plan), make ethical decisions, and interact with others.

A standard moral argument must contain at least two premises: one moral premise that asserts a moral principle and one nonmoral premise that provides factual support. This structure is essential for forming a valid moral conclusion.

Kantian Ethics- emphasizes that actions are morally right or wrong based on duty and the principle of universalizability. This means that one should act according to maxims that can be universally applied, regardless of personal goals or outcomes.

Utilitarianism- determines if an action is morally right or wrong by evaluating it consequences. An action is considered right if it maximuzes overall happiness or well-being for the greatest number of people

Moral premises: statement about what is right or wrong, good or bad

Nonmoral premise: factual statements that provide evidence or context

Moral arguments combine both types to reach a moral conclusion

Crtiteria to evaluate moral theories:

• Consistency with moral judgements:aligns with widely accepted moral beliefs

• Experience of moral life: reflects real life moral experiences

• Workability: practical application in real situations

Cognitive reflection: the ability to think logically instead of rely on gut reactions and emotions

• Helps access the validity of conspirac theories 

Conspiracy theories are appealing to individuals because they:

Align with preconceived beliefs

To assess a conspiracy theory's credibility, ask yourself:

• Who benefits from this theory?

• Is there solid evidence supporting it?

• Does it align with my existing beliefs or fears?

• Is it promoting hate against a group?

• Am I reacting emotionally rather than logically?