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AP HuG Midterm Review
Map - A two-dimensional, flat representation of Earth’s surface or a portion of it.
Example: A city map showing streets and landmarks.
Cartography - The science of making maps.
Example: The process of creating a topographic map.
Scale - Generally, the relationship between the portion of Earth being studied and Earth as a whole.
Example: 1 inch on a map represents 1 mile on the ground.
Projection - A system used to transfer locations from Earth’s surface to a flat map.
Example: Using the Mercator projection for world maps.
Mercator Projection -A projecton where longitutde and latitude is shown at right angles. It preserves the shape of the map but distorts the size massively.
Example: A map of the world used in navigation.
Peters Projection - A projection that Preserves size of map but distorts shape.
Example: A world map emphasizing land area over shape.
Robinson Projection - A projection that preserves the size and shape of continents but distorts polar areas. Often used in atlases.
Example: An atlas map showing continents with balanced proportions.
Goode Projection - an interupted projection that removes much of oceans to preserve size and shape of continents, used in thematic maps.
Example: A thematic map focusing on population distribution.
Meridians - An arc drawn on a map between North and South poles.
Example: Lines of longitude on a globe.
Parallels - A circle drawn around the globe parallel to the equator and at rufgr angles to the meridians.
Example: Lines of latitude, such as the Tropic of Cancer.
Longitude - The numbering system used to indicate the location of meridians drawn on a globe and measuring distance east and west of the prime meridian.
Example: 75° W indicates a location west of the Prime Meridian.
Latitude - The numbering system used to indicate the location of parallels drawn on a globe and measuring distance north and south of the equator.
Example: 30° N indicates a location north of the Equator.
Prime Meridian - The meridian designated as 0 degrees longitude, that passes through the Royal Observatory at Greenwhich, England.
Example: The line running through Greenwich, England.
Equator - Imaginary line or circle around Earth that divides it into two equal parts; the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere.
Example: The imaginary line at 0° latitude.
International Date Line - An arc that for the most part follows 180 degrees longitude, although it deviates in several places to avoid dividing land areas. When it is crossed heading east, the clock moves back 24 hours, and when it is crossed heading west, the clock moves one day ahead.
Example: Crossing it changes the date by one day.
Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) - The time in the zone encompassing the prime meridian, or 0 degrees longitude.
Example: The time zone for London, England.
GPS - Geographic Positioning System that determines the precise position of something on Earth through a series of satellites, tracking stations, and recievers.
Example: Using a smartphone to find directions.
GIS - Geographic Information System (computer) that stores, organizes, analyzes, and displays geographic data.
Example: Software used for urban planning.
Remote sensing - The aquisition of data about Earth’s surface from a satelite orbiting the planet or from other long-distance methods.
Example: Satellite images of deforestation.
Place - A specific point on Earth, distinguished by a particular characteristic.
Example: Paris, known for the Eiffel Tower.
Sense of Place - emotional connections and attatchments individuals form with specific locations and environments.
Example: Feeling nostalgic about childhood home.
Placelessness - refers to similiarity of popular places and the loss of a place’s unique identity due to the influence of popular culture and globalization.
Example: Chain stores that look the same worldwide.
Absolute Location - defines a point or place on the map using coordinates such as latitude and longitude.
Example: The coordinates of the Eiffel Tower: 48.8584° N, 2.2945° E.
Relative Location - refers to the location of a place compared to a known place or geographic feature.
Example: New York City is located northeast of Philadelphia.
Toponym - The name given to a portion of Earth’s surface.
Example: "Rocky Mountains" as a geographical name.
Site - The physical character of a place.
Example: The physical characteristics of a valley.
Situation - The location of a place relative to another place.
Example: A city located near a capital.
Formal Region - An area in which everyone shares in common one or more distinctive characteristics.
Example: The Midwest in the USA, defined by shared agricultural practices.
Functional Region - An area organized around a node or focal point.
Example: The area served by a metropolitan transit system.
Vernacular Region - An area that people believe exists as a part of their cultural identity.
Example: "The South" in the USA, based on cultural identity.
Mental Map - A representation of a portion of Earth’s surface based on what an individual knows about a place that contains personal impressions of what is in the place and where the place is located.
Example: A student's drawing of their neighborhood.
Spatial Association - The relationship between the distribution of one feature and the distribution of another feature.
Example: The correlation between high-income areas and access to parks.
Globalization - Actions or processes that involve the entire world and result in making something worldwide in scope.
Example: The spread of fast-food chains worldwide.
Distribution - The arrangement of something accross Earth’s surface.
Example: The spread of coffee shops in a city.
Density - The frequency with which something exists withen a given unit of area.
Example: The number of people per square kilometer in a city.
Concentration - The spread of something over a given area.
Example: High concentration of tech companies in Silicon Valley.
Clustered Spatial Pattern - when things are commonly grouped/clustered together on Earth’s surface.
Example: Houses in a suburban neighborhood.
Dispersed Spatial Pattern - when things are spread out on Earth’s surface.
Example: Farms spread across a rural area.
Hearth - The region from which innovative ideas originate.
Example: The Fertile Crescent as the origin of agriculture.
Relocation Diffusion - The spread of a feature or trend through bodily movement of people from one place to another.
Example: The spread of pizza from Italy to the USA.
Hierarchical Diffusion - The spread of a feature or trend from one key person or node of authority or power to other persons or places.
Example: Fashion trends spreading from celebrities to the public.
Contagious Diffusion - The rapid, widespread diffusion of a feature or trend throughout a population.
Example: Viral social media challenges.
Stimulus Diffusion - The spread of an underlying principle even though a specific characteristic is rejected.
Example: The adaptation of sushi in various cuisines.
Distance decay - The diminished importance and eventual dissapearence of a phenomenon with increasing distance from its origin.
Example: Decreased sales of a product further from its origin.
Time-space compression - The decrease in time and relative distance between places.
Example: The impact of the internet on global communication.
Koppen System - categorizes climate zones throughout the world based on local vegetation.
Example: Classification of climates as tropical, arid, temperate, etc.
Sustainability - The use of Earth’s renewable and nonrenewable natural resources in ways that do not constrain resource use in the future.
Example: Solar energy use to reduce fossil fuel dependency.
Environmental Determinism - A nineteenth and early twentieth century approach to the study of geography which argued that the general laws sought by human geographers could be found in the physical sciences. Geography was therefore the study of how the physical environment caused human activities.
Example: The influence of climate on agricultural practices.
Possibilism - The theory that the physical environment may set limits on human actions, but people have the ability to adjust to the physical environment and choose a course of action from many alternatives.
Example: Urban development in flood-prone areas with levees.
Probabalism - the idea that the environment sets certain limits, but humans have a range of choices within those limits.
Example: Choosing crops based on climate limits.
Poststructuralist Geography - The study of space and the product of ideologies or value systems of ruling elites.
Example: Analyzing urban spaces through the lens of power dynamics.
Humanistic Geography - The study of different ways that individuals form ideas about place and give those places symbolic meanings.
Example: Personal meanings attached to a childhood home.
Behavioral Geography - The study of the phychological basis for individual human actions in space.
Example: Studying how people navigate a city.
Conservation - The sustainable management of a natural resource.
Example: Managing a forest to prevent overlogging.
Preservation - The maintenence of resources in their present condition, with as little human impact as possible.
Example: Protecting a national park from development.
Quantitative - involving numbers and data
Example: Analyzing population statistics.
Qualitative data - involving words and descriptive characteristics
Example: Interviews about community experiences.
Accessibility - the degree of ease with which it is possible to reach certain locations from other locations.
Example: Proximity of public transport to residential areas.
Connectivity - Refers to the relationships among people and objects across the barrier of space.
Example: A long-distance relationship flourishing because of social media platforms such as Instagram, Facebook, and Tik Tok.
Agricultural density - The ratio of number of farmers to the total amount of land suitable for agriculture
ex: Egypt, with 36,350 square kilometers of arable land has an agricultural population density of 864 farmers per sq. kilometer. This means that for every 864 farmers, there will be 1 sq. kilometer of land suitable for agriculture.
61. Arithmetic density - The total number of people divided by the total land area
ex: If a city has a population of 1 million people and covers an area of 500 sq. kilomters, its arithmetic density would be 2000 people per sq. kilometer. 1 million divided by 500 is 2000 (dividing total number of people by the total land area).
62. Carrying capacity - The number of organisms an ecosystem can sustainably support
ex: Within a population of foxes, there is enough space and water for 20 individuals. The ecosystem can sustainably support 20 origanisms before it cannot produce enough nutrients/space to hold more.
63. Census - A complete enumeration of a population
ex: A census counts all of the women in Texas and records their ages. A sample might randomly select 1000 women in Texas and ask each of them their age.
64. Crude birth rate (CBR) - The total number of live births in a year for every 1,000 people alive in the society
ex: A crude birth rate of 9.5 (per 1,000 people) in a population of 1 million would imply 9,500 births per year in the entire population. This shows the total number of live births in a year for every 1,000 people alive.
65. Crude death rate (CDR) - The total number of deaths in a year for every 1,000 people alive in the society
ex: A crude death rate of 9.5 (per 1,000 people) in a population of 1 million would imply 9,500 deaths per year in the entire population. This shows the total number of deaths in a year for every 1,000 people alive.
66. Demographic transition - The process of change in a society's population from a condition of high crude birth and death rates and low rate of natural increase to a condition of low crude birth and death rates, low rate of natural increase, and higher total population
ex: China experienced a demographic transition with high death rate and low fertility rate from 1959 to 1961 due to the great famine. However, as a result of economic improvement, the birth rate increased and the death rate declined in China before the early 1970s.
67. Demography - The scientific study of population characteristics
ex: Examples of demographies include factors such as the race, sex, education, income, and age of a population that is being studied. The statistical information of the population’s socioeconimic data is known as demographic data.
68. Dependency Ratio - The number of people under the age 15 and over age 64 compared to the number of people active in the labor force
ex: Japan’s dependency ratio is 0.53, meaning there are 53 people over the age of 64 for every 100 working-aged adults in Japan.
69. Doubling time - The number of years needed to double a population, assuming the constant rate of natural increase
ex: Canada’s net population growth was 2.7 percent in 2022, dividing 72 by 2.7 gives an approximate doubling time of 27 years.
70. Ecumene - The portion of Earth’s surface occupied by a permanent human settlement
ex: Highly populated ecumene areas include megacities like Tokyo, New York, and Mumbai. Lesser populated ecumene areas include the western regions of the U.S.
71. Elderly Support Ratio - The number of working-age people (15 - 64) divided by number of people 65 and older
ex: The world’s elderly support ratio is about 9, because for every adult over 65, there are 9 people of working age.
72. Epidemiologic transition - The process of change in the distinctive causes of death in each stage of the demographic transition
ex: A study showed that obesity prevalence and body mass index increased linearly with income in devloping countries whereas in more developed countries, obesity was inversely related to income.
73. Industrial Revolution - A series of improvements in industrial technology that transformed the process of manufacturing goods
ex: The Industrial Revolution created a very large expanse of new technology; some of which including the steam engine, spinning jenny, cotton gin, telegraphy, locotmotives, iron, factory systems, and more.
74. Infant mortality rate (IMR) - The total number of deaths in a year among infants under 1 for every 1,000 live births in a society
ex: The IMR for the U.S. was 5.60 infant deaths per 1,000 live births.
75. Life Expectancy - The average number of years an individual can be expected to live
ex: 15 year olds in 1816 in France had a life expectancy of 58 years. By 2021, the life expectancy of 15 year olds increased to 83.
76. Maladaptation - an adaptation that has become less beneficial and more harmful over time
ex: A company wishing to plant trees to sequester carbon, but doing so in a location prone to wildfire. This becomes less beneficial and more harmful over time (counterproductive).
77. Malthus/Boserup Population Theories - population growth tends to outpace food production, leading to inevitable shortages and societal issues/population growth drives agricultural innovation (opposite)
78. Maternal Mortality Rate -The annual number of female deaths per 100,000 live births from any cause related to or aggrevated by pregnancy or its managment
ex: The maternal mortality rate was 32.9 deaths per 100,000 live births in 2021.
79. Medical revolution - Medical technology invented in Europe and North America that has diffused to the poorer countries and has improved medical practices and eliminated many death causes
ex: The Medical Revolution helped create vaccines, antibiotics, 3d printing, undertsanding of DNA, organ transplantation, insulin, anaesthesia, CRISPER, and more.
80. Natural increase rate (NIR) - The percentage growth of a population in a year, computed as the crude birth rate minus the crude death rate
ex: Over the course of a year in a town, 500 new babies were born and 250 people passed away. This town had a Natural Increase Rate of 2.5 percent.
81. Overpopulation - A situation in which the number of people in an area exceeds the capacity of the environment to support life at a decent standard of living
ex: China is facing overpopulation, particularly in specific areas of the country. Here, the number of people are exceeding the capacity of the environment to support life at a decent living standard.
82. Pandemic - Disease that occurs over a wide geographic area and affects a very high proportion of the population
ex: The Covid - 19 pandemic was a world-wide pandemic that affected a high proportion of the population and killed many people.
83. Physiological density - The number of people per unit area of arable land, which is land suitable for agriculture
ex: Austrailia has a density of only 43 people per sq. kilometer of arable land.
84. Population pyramid - A bar graph that represents the distribution of population by age and sex
ex: The United States has a constrictive population period that depicts a more developed country. It has a stationary pyramid that shows a somewhat equal proportion of population in each group. There is not a decrease or increase in the population; it is stable.
85. Restrictive population policies - government policies to reduce the rate of natural increase (NIR)
ex: China’s One-Child Polict resulted in heavily skewed male-to-female ratio because families often preferred sons.
86. Sex ratio - The number of males per 100 females in the population
ex: A sex ration of 117 means there are 117 males to every 100 females.
87. Stationary population level - level at which national population ceases to grow
ex: Suppose that 1,000,000 females are born during each year. Thereafter, they die. The result is a stationary population, that is, a population characterized by a constant annual ariival of births and an unchanging schedule of mortality.
88 Total fertility rate (TFR) - The average number of children a woman will have throughout her childbearing years
ex: High fertility means having total fertility levels above 5 children per woman.
89. Zero population growth (ZPG) - A decline of the total fertility rate to the point where the natural increase rate equals zero
ex: China reached a population plateau (zero growth) in 2022 meaning the NIR equals zero.
Activity Space - The space within which daily activity occurs
ex). The daily commute of a person from home to work or school. This concept refers to the area within which individuals move regularly as they go about their daily activities. For instance, a student's activity space might include their home, school, nearby parks, and places they frequently visit.
91. Asylum seeker - Someone who has migrated to a different country in the hope of being recognized as a refugee
ex). A Syrian refugee escaping the civil war and seeking asylum in Germany. This shows that the Syrian migrated to a different country in hopes of being recognized as a refugee and given a safe haven.
92. Brain drain/Brain gain - Large scale emigration and immigration by talented people
ex). A skilled doctor from India moving to the United States for better career opportunities, leading to a shortage of medical professionals in India; Tech professionals relocating to Silicon Valley, contributing to the technological advancements and economic growth of the U.S.
93. Chain migration - Migration of people to a specific location because relatives or members of the same nationality previously migrated there
ex). When a family member moves to a new country and then helps other family members follow them; a person from Mexico immigrates to the United States for better job opportunities. Once they establish themselves, they sponsor their relatives to join them. This leads to a chain reaction where family members gradually move to the new country, creating a community of migrants from the same origin.
94. Circulation Migration - The temporary movement of a migrant worker between home and host countries to seek employment
ex). Agricultural workers from Mexico might migrate to the United States for the harvest season and then return home once the season ends. This type of migration is temporary and repetitive, as individuals move back and forth in response to seasonal demands for labor.
95. Counterurbanization - Net migration from urban to rural areas in more developed countries
ex). Residents of a city like New York may relocate to the rural outskirts of upstate New York to escape the high cost of living, traffic, and noise. This movement is often driven by the desire for more space, a slower pace of life, and improved quality of life in less densely populated areas.
96. Diaspora - A dispersion of people from their homeland
ex). Over centuries, Jewish communities were dispersed from their homeland in the Middle East to various parts of the world, including Europe, North America, and Africa. This dispersion has created widespread Jewish communities maintaining their cultural, religious, and historical identities while contributing to the diversity of their host countries.
97. Emigration - Migration from a location
ex). A skilled professional leaving India to work in Canada.
98. Floodplain - An area subject to flooding during a given number of years, according to historical trends
ex). The Sahara desert is not a floodplain, as it is not a location subject to flooding during a given number years due to its dry climate.
99. Forced Migration - Permanent movement, usually compelled by cultural factors
ex). Due to the ongoing civil war and violent conflict in Syria, millions of Syrians have been forced to flee their homes and seek refuge in neighboring countries like Turkey, Lebanon, and Jordan, as well as in Europe. This migration is involuntary and is forced upon those being moved.
100. Gravity Model - A model which holds that the potential use of a service at a particular location is directly related to the number of people in a location and inversely related to the distance people must travel to reach the service
ex). The interaction between New York City and Los Angeles. Despite the significant distance between them, these cities have strong economic and social ties due to their large populations and economic activities.
101. Guest worker - A term once used for a worker who migrated to the developed countries of Northern and Western Europe in search of a higher paying job
ex). During the 1950s and 60s, Germany invited workers from countries like Turkey, Italy, and Greece to fill labor shortages in various industries. These guest workers were allowed to work temporarily in Germany under specific contracts.
102. Immigration - Migration to a new location
ex). An individual moving from Mexico to the United States.
103. Internal Migration - Permanent movement within a particular country
ex). The movement of people from the Rust Belt to the Sunbelt in the United States
104. Internally displaced person - Someone who has been forced to migrate for similar political reasons as a refugee but has not migrated across an international boarder
ex). A person from a town Syria, who moves to a safer area within Syria due to ongoing violence, is considered an IDP. Unlike refugees, who cross international borders seeking safety, IDPs seek refuge within their own country, often facing similar hardships without the same legal protections and assistance from the international community.
105. International migration - Permanent movement from one country to another
ex). Someone moving from India to Canada. This type of migration involves crossing international borders and is often driven by the search for better job opportunities, higher education, or improved living conditions.
106. Interregional migration - Permanent movement from one region of a country to another
ex). Movement of people from the northeastern United States to the southwestern states like Arizona and Texas. This migration is often driven by factors such as job opportunities, warmer climates, and lower cost of living.
107. Intervening obstacle - A negative environmental or cultural feature of the landscape that hinders migration
ex). A canyon prohibits one from traversing Arizona completely due to not being able to walk through it. This hinders one from migrating through.
108. Intervening opportunity - A positive environmental or cultural feature of the landscape that allows you to remain where you are
ex). The climate is too cold for one’s liking in Alaska, but over time, due to global warming, the climate warms and you are satisfied with where you are.
109. Intraregional migration - Permanent movement within one region of a country
ex). Residents of Chicago might move to suburban areas like Naperville or Schaumburg for more space, better schools, or a quieter environment.
110. Migration - A permanent move to a new location
ex). The immigrants migrated to America in search of “The American Dream”.
111. Migration transition - A change in the migration pattern in a society that results from industrialization, population growth, and other social or economic changes that also produces the demographic transition
ex). South Korea's migration transition shifted from rural-to-urban during industrialization (Stage 2) to urban-to-urban as the economy grew (Stage 3). Recently, there's been counterurbanization (Stage 4), with people moving to suburban and rural areas for better living conditions.
112. Mobility - All types of movements between locations
ex). A person commuting daily from their home to their workplace.
113. Net migration - The difference between the level of immigration and the level of emmigration
ex). The overall migration rate in Germany. If Germany receives 1 million immigrants in a year but sees 400,000 people emigrate, the net migration is positive at 600,000.
114. Place utility - A concept used to measure an individual’s satisfaction with a given location
ex). Relocating for a job. Suppose someone moves from a small town to a large city because the city offers better employment opportunities and higher wages. This move increases the person's place utility, as the new location better satisfies their needs and improves their overall quality of life.
115. Protracted Refugee - A situation where those in which at least 25,000 refugees from the same country have been living in exile for more than five consecutive years
ex). Many Syrians have been displaced for over a decade due to ongoing conflict, living in refugee camps in countries like Turkey, Lebanon, and Jordan. These prolonged stays often lead to refugees living in limbo without permanent solutions, facing challenges in accessing education, employment, and basic services.
116. Push Factors - A factor that induces people to move out of their present location
ex). High unemployment rates in a region force individuals to migrate to areas with better job markets.
117. Pull Factors - A factor that induces people to move to a new location
ex). The tech boom in Silicon Valley attracts skilled workers from around the world seeking better career opportunities.
118. Quotas - A law that places a maximum limit on the number of people who can immigrate to a country each year
ex). The U.S. Immigration and Nationality Act (1965): This act abolished previous national-origin quotas and established a new system favoring family reunification and skilled immigrants. It set annual limits on the number of immigrants from each country.
119. Refugees - Someone who is forced to migrate from their home country and cannot return for fear of persecution because of race, religion, nationality, or political opinion
ex). Many Syrians have fled their country due to war, and are refugees because of this.
120. Stateless Person - People who are not considered by any state as nationals; lost their citizenship
ex). A Rohingya individual from Myanmar. Due to the government's refusal to recognize the Rohingya as citizens, many of them are left without legal nationality. This stateless status means they lack access to basic rights and services such as education, healthcare, and legal protection.
121. Step migration - A type of migration where people move in a series of smaller, incremental steps rather than making a single, long-distance move
ex). A person from a rural area in Mexico might first move to a small town, then to a larger city within Mexico, and finally to the United States.
122. Suburbanization - A term used to describe the movement of people, businesses, and industries from urban centres to outlying areas
ex). Families moving from downtown Chicago to suburban neighborhoods like Naperville or Schaumburg.
123. Transhumance - The seasonal migration of livestock between mountains and lowland pastures
ex). In the Alps, herders move their cattle to high mountain pastures in the summer for grazing and then bring them down to lower valleys in the winter. This traditional practice helps optimize the use of available pasture resources and ensures the sustainability of livestock farming.
124. Urbanization - An increase in the percentage of and the number of people living in urban settlements
ex). Industrialization in the 19th century led to mass urbanization in cities like London and New York, transforming them into major economic and cultural centers..
125. Unauthorized immigrants - A person who enters a country without proper documents to do so
ex). Individuals from Central America entering the United States without legal permission.
126. Voluntary migration - Permanent movement undertaken by choice
ex). A tech worker moving from India to America for better employment.
127. Xenophobia - A dislike, hatred for, or fear of outsiders
ex). The backlash against Syrian refugees in various European countries. Fearing economic strain, cultural changes, and security threats, some local populations have exhibited hostility towards the refugees.
128. Acculturation - The process of cultural modification resulting from sustained contact between different cultures. Involving the adoption of cultural characteristics by one group under the influence of another.
Ex: Japanese people adopting Western-style clothing and technology during the Meiji Era (1868-1912) due to increased contact with Western countries.
129. Assimilation - The process of social, cultural, and political integration of a minority into a dominant culture and society. More complete absorption into dominant culture, leaving traditions behind.
Ex: Native American children being placed in boarding schools in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in the United States, where they were taught English and prohibited from practicing their cultures.
130. Cultural Landscape - The modification of the natural landscape by human activities, resulting in a visible human imprint on the land.
Ex: The terraced rice fields of the Philippines, which show the imprint of human labor and agricultural practices on the natural landscape.
131. Custom - A common way of doing things that has been done for a long time in a more traditional manner.
Ex: Celebrating Thanksgiving in the United States, where people gather for a feast, often including turkey, and give thanks.
132. Folk Culture - The traditional practices, customs, and beliefs of small, homogeneous groups of people, often in rural areas, that have been passed down through generations.
Ex: The Amish communities in the United States, who maintain traditional practices such as horse-drawn buggies and hand-crafted furniture.
133. Habit - A routine behavior that is repeated regularly and tends to occur subconsciously.
Ex: Brushing your teeth every morning.
134. Hearth - The particular area where a particular culture originated and spread from.
Ex: The Nile River in Egypt.
135. Maladaptation - A trait or adaptation that is more harmful than helpful.
Ex: The high sugar consumption habit in modern diets, which is linked to various health problems like diabetes and obesity.
136. Mentifact - The shared ideas, values, and beliefs of a culture.
Ex: The belief in democracy and individual rights in American culture.
137. Popular Culture - The set of ideas, practices, beliefs, and objects that are prevalent and widely accepted within mainstream society at a given time.
Ex: The global popularity of the Harry Potter series, which includes books, movies, theme parks, and merchandise.
138. Sociofact - The structures and organizations of a culture that influence social behavior.
Ex: The family structure and kinship ties that determine social behavior in many traditional societies.
139. Taboo - A restriction on behavior imposed by social culture.
Ex: In many cultures, it is a taboo to discuss death or dying openly.
140. Terroir - Unique/specific environmental factors that contribute to the sense of place.
Ex: The distinct taste of Champagne, which is influenced by the unique soil, climate, and grape varieties of the Champagne region in France.
141. Trait - An attribute or characteristic of a culture, such as a language, religion, customs, or practices that helps to define a group’s way of life.
Ex: The widespread practice of shaking hands as a greeting in many Western cultures.
142. Transculturalation - The process in which subjugated groups creatively adopt and transform cultural forms from dominant groups.
Ex: The blending of African, Native American, and Spanish cultures in the Caribbean to create unique musical styles like Reggae and Salsa.
143. Uniform Landscape - An area that has been shaped and standardized by cultural and economic practices, leading to a homogeneity in appearance and function.
Ex: The proliferation of fast-food chains like McDonald's around the world, leading to similar-looking commercial areas in different countries.
144. Vernacular Region - An area that people believes exists because of their cultural identity.
Ex: The American South, often referred to as "Dixie," based on shared cultural identity, language, and history.
145. Creole - Languages that are formed by the combination of two or more languages.
Ex: Haitian Creole, which developed from a mixture of French and African languages among enslaved people in Haiti.
146. Denglish - A combination of Deutsch (German) and English
147. Developing Language - A language spoken in daily use with a literary tradition that is not widely distributed.
Ex: Quechua, which is spoken in daily use among people in the Andes and has a rich oral tradition but limited written literature.
148. Dialect - Regional or social variations of a language that differ in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar.
Ex: The Cockney dialect in London, known for its unique pronunciation and rhyming slang.
149. Ebonics - Dialect spoken by some African-Americans
Ex: African American Vernacular English (AAVE), spoken by some African Americans, with distinct grammatical and phonological features.
150. Ethnologue - An annual reference publication in print and online that provides statistics and other information on the living languages of the world.
Ex: A comprehensive reference that documents the world's languages and provides data on language use, classification, and endangerment.
151. Extinct language - A language that no longer exists.
Ex: Latin, which is no longer spoken as a native language but still used in religious and academic contexts.
152. Institutional Language - A language used in education, wok, mass media, and government; spoken and written.
Ex: Standard Mandarin Chinese, used in government, education, and media in China.
153. Isogloss - A boundary line between two distinct linguistic regions.
Ex: The boundary between areas where different dialects of German are spoken, such as the line between High German and Low German.
154. Isolated language - language unrelated to any other languages and unattached to any language family.
Ex: Basque, spoken in the Basque Country region of Spain and France, unrelated to any other language family.
155. Language - A system of communication through the use of speech, a collection of sounds understood by a group of people to have the same meaning.
Ex: English, which is spoken by millions of people worldwide as a first or second language.
156. Language Branch - collection of languages reated through a common ancestor that can be confirmed through archaeological evidence.
Ex: The Romance languages, which include Spanish, French, Italian, Portuguese, and Romanian, all derived from Latin.
157. Language family - collection of languages reated through a common ancestor long before recorded history.
Ex: The Indo-European language family, which includes languages like English, Spanish, Russian, and Hindi.
158. Language group - collection of languages within a branch that share a common origin in the relatively recent past and display relatively few differences in grammar and vocabulary.
Ex: The Germanic language group within the Indo-European family, which includes English, German, Dutch, and Swedish.
159. Lingua franca - A language mutually understood and commonly used in trade by people who have different native languages.
Ex: English, widely used as a common language in international business and diplomacy.
160. Literary tradition - A language that is written as well as spoken. This includes a system of written communication.
Ex: Written Chinese, with a long history of classical texts, poetry, and literature.
161. Logogram - A symbol that represents a word rather than a sound.
Ex: The Chinese character "日" (rì), which means "sun" or "day" and represents a word rather than a sound.
162. Official language - The language adopted for use by a country’s government for the conduct of business and publication of documents.
Ex: French, which is the official language of France and used in government, education, and legal documents.
163. Pidgin language - A form of speech that adopts a simplified grammar and limited vocabulary of a lingua franca, used for communications among speakers of two different languages.
Ex: Tok Pisin, a pidgin language used in Papua New Guinea for communication between speakers of different native languages.
164. Received Pronunciation (RP) - The dialect of English associated with upper-class Britons living in London and now considered standard in the United Kingdom.
Ex: The standard accent of English spoken in the United Kingdom, often associated with the British upper class and used by the BBC.
165. Standard Language - The form of a language used for official government business, education, and mass communications.
Ex: Standard American English, used in official government documents, education, and media in the United States.
166. Subdialect - A subdivision of a dialect, usually marked by specific local phonetic, grammatical, and lexical peculiarities.
Ex: The Southern American English subdialect, with distinct pronunciation and vocabulary features compared to other American English dialects.
167. Vigorous Language - A language that is spoken in daily use by people of all ages, but lacks a literary tradition.
Ex: Swahili, spoken in daily use by people across East Africa, with a strong oral tradition but limited written literature.
168. Vulgar Latin - A form of Latin used in daily conversation by ancient Romans, as opposed to the standard dialect, which was used for official documents.
Ex: The colloquial Latin spoken by common people in the Roman Empire, which eventually evolved into the Romance languages.
169. Agnosticism - The belief that the existence of God, or the divine, or the supernatural is unknown or unknowable.
Ex: The view that the existence of God or the divine is unknown or unknowable, often associated with the philosopher Thomas Huxley.
170. Animism - The belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct spiritual essence.
Ex: The belief in spiritual beings or forces in nature, such as the spirits of trees and rivers in many indigenous cultures.
171. Atheism - The absence of belief in the existence of deities.
Ex: The absence of belief in deities, exemplified by secular humanism, which emphasizes human reason and ethics.
172. Autonomous religion - A religion that does not have a central authority but shares ideas and cooperates informally.
Ex: Hinduism, which lacks a central authority and has diverse practices and beliefs shared informally.
173. Branch - A large and fundamental division within a religion.
Ex: Sunni Islam, one of the two main branches of Islam, the other being Shia Islam.
174. Caste - The class or distinct hereditary order into which a Hindu is assigned according to religious law.
Ex: The Brahmin caste in Hindu society, traditionally associated with priests and scholars.
175. Congregation - A local assembly of persons brought together for common religious worship
Ex: A local church gathering for Sunday worship services.
176. Cosmogony - set of religious beliefs concerning the origin of the universe.
Ex: The Big Bang theory in science, which explains the origin of the universe, or religious beliefs like the creation story in the Bible.
177. Denomination - A division of a branch that unites a number of local congregations into a single legal and administrative body.
Ex: The Baptist denomination within Christianity, which unites many local Baptist churches.
178. Ethnic Religion - A religion that is relatively concentrated spatially, the principles of which are likely to be based on the physical characteristics of the particular location in which its adherents are concentrated.
Ex: Judaism, which is closely tied to the Jewish people's history and cultural identity.
179. Fundamentalism - Literal interpretation and strict adherence to basic principles of a religion (or a religious branch, denomination, or sect).
Ex: The rise of Christian fundamentalism in the early 20th century United States, emphasizing a literal interpretation of the Bible.
180. Ghetto - A section of a city in which members of any minority group live because of social, legal, or economic pressure.
Ex: The Jewish ghettos in Europe during World War II, where Jewish communities were forcibly isolated by the Nazis.
181. Hierarchical religion - A religion in which a central authority exercises a high degree of control.
Ex: The Roman Catholic Church, with the Pope at the top of the hierarchy, followed by cardinals, bishops, priests, and laypeople.
182. Intrafaith Boundary - The boundaries within a major religion.
Ex: The divisions within Islam between Sunni and Shia Muslims, each with their own religious practices and interpretations.
183. Interfaith Boundary - boundaries between the world's major faiths.
Ex: The boundary between predominantly Hindu India and predominantly Muslim Pakistan, leading to cultural and religious differences.
184. Missionary - An individual who helps to diffuse a universalizing religion.
Ex: Christian missionaries like Saint Francis Xavier, who traveled to Asia to spread Christianity.
185. Monotheism - The doctrine or belief that there is only one God.
Ex: Islam, which teaches the belief in one God, Allah.
186. Pagan - A follower of a polytheistic religion in ancient times.
Ex: Followers of ancient Greek religion who worshipped multiple gods like Zeus, Athena, and Apollo.
187. Pilgrimage - A journey to a place considered sacred for religious purposes.
Ex: The Hajj, an annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca that all Muslims are expected to make at least once in their lifetime if they are able.
188. Polytheism - The belief in or worship of more than one god.
Ex: Hinduism, which includes the worship of multiple deities such as Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva.
189. Sect - A relatively small group that has broken away from an established denomination.
Ex: The Amish, who broke away from the Mennonite Church to form their own distinct religious community with unique practices.
190. Secularism - The principle of separation of the state from religious institutions.
Ex: The principle of separation of church and state in the United States, ensuring that religious institutions do not interfere with government affairs.
191. Shamanism - A practice that involves a practitioner reaching altered states of consciousness in order to perceive and interact with a spirit world and channel these transcendental energies into this world.
Ex: Indigenous Siberian shamans who perform rituals to communicate with the spirit world for healing and guidance.
192. Solstice - Astronomical event that happens twice each year when the tilt of the Earth's axis is most inclined toward or away from the Sun, causing the Sun’s apparent position in the sky to reach its northernmost or southernmost extreme.
Ex: The summer solstice, celebrated around June 21st, marking the longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere.
193. Syncretic - A religion that combines several traditions.
Ex: Voodoo, which combines elements of West African, Catholic, and indigenous beliefs and practices.
194. Theocracy - A system of government in which priests rule in the name of God or a god.
Ex: Iran, where the government is led by religious leaders and laws are based on Islamic principles.
195. Universalizing religion - A religion that attempts to appeal to all people, not just those living in a particular location.
Ex: Christianity, which seeks to convert people of all backgrounds and spread its teachings globally.
196. Apartheid - A policy or system of segregation or discrimination on grounds of race, notably practiced in South Africa from 1948 to 1994.
Ex: The institutionalized racial segregation and discrimination in South Africa, enforced through laws that restricted the rights of the non-white population.
197. Balkanization - The process by which a state breaks down through conflicts among its ethnicities, often leading to fragmentation.
Ex: The fragmentation of Yugoslavia in the 1990s into several independent countries based on ethnic lines.
198. Balkanized - A small geographic area that could not successfully be organized into stable states due to multiple ethnicities with long-standing antagonisms toward each other.
Ex: The city of Jerusalem, which experiences ongoing conflicts and divisions due to the presence of multiple religious and ethnic groups with historical animosities.
199. Blockbusting - A process by which real estate agents convince white property owners to sell their houses at low prices because of fear that people of color will soon move into the neighborhood.
Ex: In the mid-20th century United States, real estate agents would exploit racial fears to induce white homeowners to sell their properties at lower prices.
200. Centripetal force - An attitude that tends to unify people and enhance support for a state.
Ex: National symbols like the American flag and national anthem, which foster a sense of unity and pride among citizens of the United States.
201. Ethnic cleansing - A policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas.
Ex: The Bosnian genocide during the 1990s, where ethnic Bosniaks and Croats were forcibly removed and killed by Bosnian Serb forces.
202. Ethnicity - Identity with a group of people who share the cultural traditions of a particular homeland or hearth.
Ex: The distinct cultural identity of the Kurdish people, who share common traditions, language, and homeland in the Middle East.
203. Ethnocentrism - Belief in the superiority of one's own ethnic group.
Ex: The belief in the cultural superiority of one's own ethnic group, such as European colonialists viewing indigenous cultures as inferior.
204. Ethnic Enclave - A place with a high concentration of an ethnic group that is distinct from those in the surrounding area.
Ex: Chinatown in San Francisco, which has a high concentration of Chinese immigrants and retains cultural characteristics distinct from the surrounding city.
205. Genocide - The deliberate killing of a large number of people from a particular nation or ethnic group with the aim of destroying that nation or group.
Ex: The Rwandan genocide in 1994, where hundreds of thousands of Tutsis and moderate Hutus were killed by extremist Hutus.
206. Nationalism - Loyalty and devotion to a particular nationality, often promoting the interests of a particular nation, especially with the aim of gaining and maintaining the nation's sovereignty over its homeland.
Ex: The movement for Irish independence from British rule, driven by a strong sense of Irish national identity.
207. Nationality - Identity with a group of people who share legal attachment and personal allegiance to a particular country.
Ex: The shared national identity of citizens of Japan, who identify with the nation of Japan and its cultural heritage.
208. Race - Identity with a group of people descended from a common ancestor.
Ex: The classification of people based on physical characteristics such as skin color, often used to categorize individuals into groups like Caucasian, African, and Asian.
209. Racism - The belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that racial differences produce an inherent superiority of a particular race.
Ex: The systemic discrimination and prejudice against African Americans in the United States, exemplified by the Jim Crow laws.
210. Sharecropper - A person who works fields rented from a landowner and pays the rent and repays loans by turning over to the landowner a share of the crops.
Ex: African American farmers in the southern United States after the Civil War, who rented land from landowners and paid their rent with a portion of their crops.
211. Triangular slave trade - A practice, primarily during the 18th century, in which European ships transported slaves from Africa to the Caribbean, molasses from the Caribbean to Europe, and trade goods from Europe to Africa.
Ex: The transatlantic slave trade route where European ships transported enslaved Africans to the Americas, brought American raw materials to Europe, and traded European goods in Africa.
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