Practical Research 2 Periodical Test Reviewer

Practical Research 2

• According to Alcantara and Espina (2003):

  • Research is crucial for problem-solving and advancement.

  • Inventions and discoveries improve knowledge and quality of life.

  • Research expands knowledge and understanding.

Characteristics of Quantitative Research

• According to Faltado et al. (2016) Quantitative research is:

  • Objective

  • Has defined research questions

  • Uses structured research instruments

  • Deals with numerical data

  • Involves large sample sizes

  • Involves replication

  • Predicts future outcomes

Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

Strengths

• Objectivity

• Statistical techniques for data analysis

• Quick and easy analysis of numerical data

• Replicability

Weaknesses

• Requires a large number of respondents

• Costly

• Ignores contextual factors for result interpretation

• Difficulty in gathering information using structured instruments

• Questionnaire data may be incomplete or inaccurate if not seriously and correctly answered.

• Definition of Quantitative Research

  • Objective, systematic empirical investigation using computational techniques

  • Focuses on numerical analysis of data for unbiased results

  • Examples: comparing student performance with and without ICT, surveying viewer preferences

• Characteristics of Quantitative Research

  • Objective

    • Seeks accurate measurement and analysis

  • Clearly Defined Research Questions

    • Well-defined questions with objective answers sought

  • Structured Research Instruments

    • Standardized tools like questionnaires for data collection

  • Numerical Data

    • Summarized data presented in figures, tables, or graphs

  • Large Sample Sizes

    • Preferred for reliable data analysis

  • Replication

    • Methods can be repeated for verification in different settings

• Strengths and Weaknesses of Quantitative Research

  • Strengths

    • Objective, reliable, facilitates sophisticated analyses

    • Real and unbiased, replicable, useful for testing results

  • Weaknesses

    • Requires large sample sizes, costly, ignores contextual factors

    • Difficult to gather sensitive information, prone to incomplete data

• Kinds of Quantitative Research Designs

  • Experimental Designs

    • Quasi-experimental and true experimental designs for internal validity

    • Quasi-Experimental Design

      • Involves non-equivalent control groups and interrupted time series design

    • True-Experimental Design

      • Controls for time and group-related threats, employs treated and control groups

• Non-Experimental Design

  • Observes phenomena naturally without external variables

  • Descriptive Research Design

    • Observes, describes, and documents situations as they occur

  • Types of Descriptive Design

    • Survey

      • Gathers information from samples chosen from a population

• Quantitative Research Designs

  • Emphasize objective measurements and statistical analysis of data.

  • Classified into experimental and non-experimental designs.

• Experimental Research Design

  • Allows control over the situation to identify cause and effect relationships.

  • Supports inferring direct causal relationships in studies.

  • Pre-Experimental Design

    • Includes simple group pre-test-post-test design.

    • Compares posttest of treated groups with an untreated group.

    • Protects from rival explanations with between-subjects design.

• Types of Quantitative Research Designs

  • Correlational Research

    • Aims to find associations between variables or groups.

    • Bivariate Correlational Studies.

      • Obtains score from two variables for each subject

    • Prediction Studies

      • Uses correlation coefficient to show how one variable predicts another

    • Multiple Regression

      • All variables in the study can contribute to the over all prediction in an equation that adds together the predictive power of each identified variable

  • Ex-Post Facto or Causal-Comparative Research

    • Derives conclusions from past observations and compares with dependent variables.

  • Comparative Research

    • Compares two or more study samples on various variables.

  • Normative Research

    • Describes the norm level of characteristics for a given behavior.

• Evaluative Research

  • Determines the success of programs or institutions.

  • Evaluates the effectiveness of processes based on set goals.

  • Evaluates the success of programs or institutions based on set goals.

• Methodological Research

  • Integrates various methodologies to develop a scale-matched approach.

• Characteristics of Quantitative Research

  • Objectivity, large sample sizes, structured research questions, numerical data, and replication.

  • Strengths include real & unbiased data, clear definitions, and facilitating analysis.

  • Weaknesses involve the cost, difficulty in gathering data, and potential for incomplete or inaccurate data.Importance of Qualitative Research Across Fields

• Research is conducted to find solutions to problems, improve ways of doing things, disprove hypotheses, and find answers to questions in daily life.

  • Research findings can impact people's lives, laws, rules, policies, etc.

• Teachers in basic education are increasingly involved in research to enhance educational practices and improve student learning.

  • Action research helps identify and address issues in education systematically.

• Quantitative research in natural and social sciences involves empirical investigation using statistical, mathematical, or computational techniques.

  • It aims to develop mathematical models, theories, and hypotheses related to phenomena.

• Health sciences use quantitative research designs like descriptive, pre-experimental, quasi-experimental, etc.

• Research in accounting, business, and management helps in product/service design, distribution strategies, decision-making for expansion, and customer satisfaction.

• Anthropology combines qualitative and quantitative research to explore cultural connections and identity.

  • True experiments in anthropology study the effects of interventions on group behavior.

Quantitative Research in Various Fields

• Communication research explores the effects of communication behaviors in different contexts like classrooms, romantic relationships, and workplace stress.

• Sports medicine uses quantitative research to analyze the impact of physical activity on weight control and obesity prevention.

• Medical education relies on observational research through surveys or correlational studies to test interventions and educational processes.

• Behavioral sciences investigate relationships between different behaviors and explore patterns of behavior in various groups.

• Education uses quasi-experiments to evaluate social problems and interventions for improving learning outcomes.

• Psychology research has been guided by paradigms like positivism and post-positivism, focusing on studying the social world through value-free methods.

Quantitative Research in Communication

• Researchers study how communication phenomena generalize to larger populations and explore behaviors in different contexts like classrooms and relationships.

Quantitative Research in Sports Medicine

• Research analyzes the relationship between physical activity, obesity, and endurance fitness in children to understand weight control and obesity prevention.

Quantitative Research in Medical Education

• Observational research in medical education tests interventions like curriculum and teaching methods to improve learning outcomes.

Quantitative Research in Behavioral Sciences

• Studies explore relationships between different behaviors and perceptions, as well as patterns of behavior in various groups.

Quantitative Research in Education

• Quasi-experiments are commonly used to evaluate interventions and social problems in education to improve learning outcomes.

Quantitative Research in Psychology

• Early psychological research was guided by paradigms like positivism and post-positivism, focusing on studying the social world through value-free methods.

• Quantitative Research in Communication

  • Researchers aim to understand communication phenomena and generalize findings to larger populations.

  • Examples include studying the effects of punitive behavioral control statements in classrooms and communicative behaviors in romantic relationships and workplace settings.

• Quantitative Research in Sports Medicine

  • Focuses on analyzing the relationship between physical activity, obesity, and weight control in children.

  • Research aims to understand the impact of physical activity on weight management.

• Quantitative Research in Medical Education

  • Predominantly observational research based on surveys or correlational studies.

  • Tests interventions like curriculum, teaching-learning processes, or assessments with experimental groups to infer cause-effect relationships.

• Quantitative Research in Behavioral Sciences

  • Explores relationships between different behaviors exhibited by individuals.

  • Investigates how behaviors like verbal aggression relate to physical aggression and how communication styles vary across cultures and groups.

• Quantitative Research in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM)

  • Helps in understanding disease trends, health interventions, and care patterns.

  • Aids in evaluating the effectiveness and side effects of drugs and therapies in different populations.

  • Research in engineering contributes to developing designs that are both aesthetically pleasing and efficient, utilizing modern technology.

• Variables in Research

  • Variables are characteristics with two or more mutually exclusive values.

  • Types of variables include continuous (interval and ratio) and discrete (nominal and ordinal) variables.

• Types of Variables

  • Continuous Variables

    • Interval Variables: Values lie along an evenly dispersed range with meaningful differences.

    • Ratio Variables: Values have an absolute zero point and meaningful ratios.

  • Discrete Variables

    • Nominal Variables: Categories without a quantitative value.

    • Ordinal Variables: Categories that can be ordered but lack meaningful distances between attributes.

  • Independent Variables

    • Cause, influence, or affect outcomes

    • Also known as treatment, manipulated, antecedent, or predictor variables

    • Example: Study habits influencing academic performance

  • Dependent Variables

    • Outcomes that depend on independent variables

    • Also called outcome variables

    • Example: Academic performance depending on study habits

  • Intervening or Medling Variables

    • Stand between independent and dependent variables

    • Show effects of independent variable on dependent variable

    • Example: Attitude towards payment affecting loan repayment

  • Control Variables

    • Special types of independent variables that potentially influence the dependent variable

    • Measured to control for their influence

    • Demographic or personal variables that need to be controlled

  • Confounding Variables

    • Not measured or observed in a study

    • Influence cannot be directly detected

    • May explain the relationship between independent and dependent variables

Selecting the Research Topic

• Definition of Research Topic

  • A general area of interest for the researcher.

• Factors to Consider

  1. Relevance

     • Importance to the target audience and daily life.

  2. Interest

     • Should engage readers and motivate the researcher.

3. Manageability

   • Must be feasible within the researcher’s abilities and time constraints.

4. Availability of Resources

   • Sufficient references should be accessible for consultation.

• Caution

  • Avoid very recent or highly technical topics due to limited resources or understanding.

Steps in Selecting the Research Topic

1. Brainstorm for Ideas

   • Write down keywords or concepts related to interesting ideas.

2. Branch Out Ideas

   • Focus broad ideas into specific topics through discussions.

3. Gather Background Information

   • Use reliable sources for foundational knowledge.

4. Narrow Down the Topic

   • Ensure the topic is focused enough for research formulation.

Writing the Research Title

• Definition of Title

  • Summarizes the main idea of the research paper.

• Characteristics of a Good Research Title

  1. Predicts content.

  2. Engaging to the reader.

  3. Reflects the tone of the writing.

  4. Contains important keywords for searchability.

DO’s in Writing the Research Title

1. Describe the topic, method, sample, and results.

2. Use current terminology comprehensible to non-experts.

3. Keep the title between 5 and 15 words.

4. Use declarative or question form (less frequent for questions).

DONT’s in Writing the Research Title

1. Avoid overly general titles (e.g., "Exercise and Weight").

2. Refrain from using uncommon abbreviations.

3. Avoid phrases like “A Study of…” to reduce wordiness.

4. Do not indicate the year of the study.

5. Avoid jargon.

Background of the Study

• Purpose

  • Establishes the context of the study, including subject descriptions and historical background.

Steps in Writing a Good Background of the Study

1. Describe the Study

   • Nature, features, and merits of the topic.

2. Literature Review

   • Summarize major studies and group authors with similar views.

3. Current Situation

   • Discuss educational problems based on observations.

4. Identify Gaps

   • Highlight contradictions in knowledge from literature and observations.

Establishing the Research Gap

1. Current State of the Field

   • Importance and ongoing interest in the research area.

2. Conventional Practices

   • Discuss current methods and their contributions.

3. Identify the Research Gap

   • Highlight unaddressed aspects or inconclusive findings.

4. Contribution of the Study

   • Explain how the study will fill the identified gap.

Identifying and Stating the Research Problem

• Definition

  • Specific issue to be addressed, identifying variables and relationships.

Steps in Identifying the Research Problem

1. Conduct preliminary research.

2. Prepare a concept map to synthesize ideas.

3. Identify the research problem from clusters.

Formulating the Research Question

• Definition

  • Defines the research problem and guides the study.

Classifications of Research Questions

1. General Research Question

   • Related to quantitative research (effects, relationships).

2. Specific Research Problem

   • Anchored on the general question, aids in data collection.

Specific Research Questions for Descriptive Research

• Used to quantify variables through surveys.

• Questions often start with "how often," "how much," etc.

Sample Questions for Descriptive Research

1. What is the most preferred cuisine of Mexicans?

2. How many Chinese citizens leave the country annually for better opportunities?

Specific Research Question for Correlational Research

• Understand associations between variables.

• Questions start with "What is the relationship" between variables.

Sample Questions for Correlational Research

1. What is the relationship between age and food preferences in Mexico?

2. What is the relationship between family income and university admission for American students?

Specific Research Question for Ex Post Facto Research

• Seeks to discover causes of phenomena.

Specific Research Question for True/Quasi-experimental Research

• Establishes comparisons between groups based on dependent variables.

Writing the Significance of the Study

• Purpose

  • Details contributions and benefits of the study to various stakeholders.

Tips in Writing the Significance of the Study

1. Refer to the problem statement for specific contributions.

2. Write from general to specific contributions.

Formats for Writing the Significance of the Study

1. Topical Arrangement

   • Based on individual contributions.

2. Enumeration

   • Arranged according to beneficiaries.

Writing the Scope and Delimitation

• Definition of Scope and Delimitation

  • Describes the parameters of the study.

  • Sets boundaries in terms of specific aspects.

  • Identifies the topic and information the researcher intends to cover.

• Scope

  • Identifies boundaries in terms of:

    • Subjects

    • Objectives

    • Facilities

    • Area

    • Time frame

    • Issues focused on in the research.

• Sample Phrases for Scope

  • "The coverage of this study…"

  • "The study consists of…"

  • "The study covers the…"

  • "This study is focused on…"

• Delimitations

  • Define factors consciously controlled by the researcher.

  • Common delimitations include:

    • Population or sample size.

    • Setting of the study.

    • Design or setup of the study.

  • Choice of research tools and methodologies may also be limited.

• Sample Phrases for Delimitations

  • "The study does not cover the…"

  • "The researcher limited this research to…"

  • "This study is limited to…"

• Importance of Inclusion and Exclusion

  • Reasons for including or excluding variables should be provided.

  • Reasons vary based on the nature of the study.

Literature Review

• Definition

  • An academic text providing an overview of a topic.

  • Identifies known and unknown aspects of a subject.

  • Surveys scholarly articles, books, and other relevant sources.

Uses and Purposes of a Literature Review

• Key Functions

  • Contextualizes each work's contribution.

  • Describes relationships among works.

  • Identifies new interpretations and gaps in research.

  • Resolves conflicts among contradictory studies.

• Additional Functions

  • Prevents duplication of prior scholarship.

  • Guides future research directions.

  • Contextualizes original work in relation to existing literature.

  • Does not present new primary scholarship or findings.

Goals of Literature Reviews

1. Theory Development

   • Provides context for describing and evaluating new theories.

2. Theory Evaluation

   • Assesses existing conceptualizations.

3. Survey of Knowledge

   • Offers an overview and integration of a research area.

4. Problem Identification

   • Reveals weaknesses or controversies in a field.

5. Historical Account

   • Chronicles the development of theory and research.

Stages in Writing the Literature Review

1. Searching for relevant works.

2. Analyzing scholarly works.

3. Drafting the literature review.

Literature Search

• Definition

  • Systematic search for reference materials relevant to the study.

  • Important to survey all possible sources, especially from leading scholars.

Points to Consider When Conducting Literature Search

• Provenance

  • Author's credentials and publication source.

  • Evidence supporting the author's arguments.

• Objectivity

  • Author's perspective and consideration of contrary data.

• Persuasiveness

  • Evaluation of the author's theses and data.

• Value

  • Contribution of the work to understanding the subject.

Points to Remember in Conducting Your Literature Search

1. Identify necessary topics and concepts.

2. Specify types of sources (articles, books, etc.).

3. Search scholarly work in libraries or databases (e.g., Proquest, JSTOR).

4. Include references from reputable journals and experts.

5. Use relevant keywords for searches.

6. Use reliable online links (e.g., .gov, .edu).

7. Utilize Boolean searching strategies to refine searches.

Examples of Boolean Searching Strategies

• AND: Searches for texts containing both terms (e.g., university AND colleges).

• OR: Searches for texts containing either term (e.g., university OR colleges).

• NOT: Excludes a term (e.g., university NOT colleges).

• Quotation Marks: Searches for specific phrases (e.g., “Top Philippine universities”).

Citing Sources

• Importance of Citation

  • Demonstrates credibility and intellectual honesty.

  • Highlights skills in reporting others' work.

  • Provides evidence for claims and a trail for further research.

Forms of Citation Styles

1. In-text Citation

   • Indicates the source within the text (author's last name and year).

2. Reference Citation

   • Complete bibliographic information at the end of the paper.

Most Popular Documentation Styles

• APA Style: Used in social sciences.

• MLA Style: Used in humanities and arts.

• Chicago Manual of Style: Used in various disciplines, especially history.

Examples of In-text Citations

1. APA: (Falchikov & Boud, 1989)

2. MLA: (Falchikov and Boud 415)

3. CMOS: (Falchikov and Boud 1989, 415)

Evaluation and Analysis of Selected Works

• Purpose of Evaluation

  • Performed after selecting potential references.

  • Screens references for reliability and usefulness.

  • Ensures materials are closely related to the research topic.

Strategies to Evaluate and Analyze Selected Works

• Overview of References

  • Obtain an overview of selected references.

  • Evaluate research articles for reputable publishers and legitimate authors.

  • Avoid references from predatory journals/publishers.

• Material Relevance

  • Avoid materials that do not directly explain concepts related to the study.

  • Prefer references published within the last five years.

• Organizing References

  • Group references according to categories used during literature search.

  • Carefully read materials for key information.

  • Use concept maps to visualize relationships among materials.

Drafting the Literature Review

• Model Paper

  • Get a model paper on a similar topic.

  • Provide an overview of the literature review.

  • Divide the review into:

    • Conceptual Literature

    • Related Studies

• Conceptual Literature

  • Use concepts from the title or specific questions of your research.

• Related Studies Arrangement

  • Group by theme, chronology, or type (foreign/local).

• Writing Arrangements

  • Thematic Arrangement: Focus on similarities/differences with previous studies.

  • Chronological Arrangement: Emphasize development in the field.

  • Typological Arrangement: Highlight local studies on the topic.

• Synthesis and Definitions

  • Write a synthesis at the end of related studies to show research gaps.

  • Define important terms in the study.

  • Direct readers to scholarly works for detailed concepts if needed.

• Cohesiveness in Writing

  • Use cohesive devices to link ideas.

  • Implement headings and subheadings.

  • Apply cohesiveness principles throughout the review.

  • Use direct quotations sparingly.

• Final Synthesis

  • Write a brief synthesis at the end to show how scholarly works shape your paper.

  • Survey all sources before claiming a lack of studies on a topic.

  • Cite all sources appropriately.

Important Skills in Drafting the Literature Review

• Synthesizing

  • Consolidate several references into a cohesive text.

• Note-taking

  • Write and integrate information from source texts.

  • Common forms: summarizing and paraphrasing.

Levels of Synthesis

• Microlevel Synthesis

  • Consolidation of ideas to explain a concept.

• Strategies for Microlevel Synthesis

  • Note related ideas and cluster them.

  • Arrange ideas logically, discussing common ideas first.

  • Use multiple citations for shared ideas.

  • Insert citations while writing.

• Macrolevel Synthesis

  • Consolidate studies to establish research gaps.

  • Draw conclusions based on similarities and differences.

  • Relate various issues and topics to highlight their relevance.

Strategies for Synthesizing References

• Key Strategies

  • Note similarities and differences relevant to your paper.

  • Identify unaddressed issues in references.

  • Arrange studies logically (thematically or chronologically).

  • Draw conclusions to highlight importance.

Common Forms of Note-taking

• Summarizing

  • Condense lengthy source material.

• Paraphrasing

  • Reword ideas from original text in detail.

Strategies to Effectively Summarize

• Summarization Steps

  • Read and understand the text fully.

  • Annotate important ideas.

  • Note bibliographical information.

  • Identify main ideas of paragraphs and rewrite them.

• Coherent Summary

  • Combine sentences into a coherent paragraph.

  • Avoid adding comments or unnecessary repetition.

  • Compare summary with the original for accuracy.

Strategies to Effectively Paraphrase

• Paraphrasing Steps

  • Read and comprehend the passage thoroughly.

  • Highlight relevant words/phrases and rephrase them.

  • Annotate if needed for clarity.

• Word and Sentence Level Paraphrasing

  • Use synonyms and transform sentence structures.

  • Retain the original tone and ensure accuracy.

• Final Checks

  • Compare paraphrased text with the original.

  • Properly cite the source of the paraphrased

Ethics in Literature Review

• Objective Reporting:

  • Report findings from cited studies objectively.

  • Avoid distorting findings to support personal claims.

• Citing Sources:

  • Always cite sources to acknowledge relevant studies and practice intellectual honesty.

• Avoiding Fabrication:

  • Do not fabricate information or report false data.

• Plagiarism Prevention:

  • Avoid using others' ideas without proper attribution.

Levels of Plagiarism

• Level 1: Copying a full paper word for word without acknowledgment.

• Level 2: Lifting up to 50% of a work without citation.

• Level 3: Copying specific portions (sentences/paragraphs) without citation.

• Level 4: Failing to cite or correctly paraphrase used works.

• Level 5: Citing a source but heavily copying from it.

How to Avoid Plagiarism

• Keep track of all sources (print and non-print).

• Understand the context of your sources.

• Jot down ideas and important details.

• Avoid copy-and-paste practices.

• Always cite field-specific knowledge.

Theoretical and Conceptual Frameworks

• Theoretical Framework (TF):

  • General frame for observation, concept design, research design, and findings interpretation.

• Conceptual Framework (CF):

  • System of ideas and theories specific to the study.

  • Functions as a map for navigating research.

• Presentation:

  • Visual (diagrams/charts) and narrative (explanatory paragraphs).

• Similarities:

  • Both provide comprehensive explanations and justify research methods.

• Differences:

  • TF is broader and derived from existing theories; CF is narrower and specific to the study.

Guidelines for Framework Development

• Selecting Theoretical Framework:

  • Understand variables and their relationships.

  • Review existing literature for relevant theories.

  • Choose the most relevant theory for your study.

• Developing Conceptual Framework:

  • Identify key concepts from research questions.

  • Search for existing theories and their relationships.

  • Plot the framework and incorporate necessary concepts.

  • Write a narrative explanation of concepts and their relationships.

Hypothesis of the Study

• Definition: A testable statement predicting relationships between variables.

• Types of Hypothesis:

  • Null Hypothesis (Ho): No relationship between variables.

  • Alternative Hypothesis (Ha): There is a relationship between variables.

• Directional vs. Non-Directional:

  • Directional: Specifies the nature of the relationship (positive/negative).

  • Non-Directional: Does not specify the nature of the relationship.

Writing Definition of Terms

• Definition of Terms: An annex listing acronyms, jargon, and key terms.

• Types of Definitions:

  • Conceptual: Universal meaning understood by many (dictionary definitions).

  • Operational: Specific meaning in the context of the study, allowing measurement.

• Guidelines for Defining Terms:

  • Define only terms with unique meanings in the study.

  • Use operational definitions.

  • Develop definitions from term characteristics.

  • Acknowledge sources for definitions.

  • Ensure definitions are brief, clear, and unequivocal.