EXAM 3430

Semantic Memory

Episodic vs. Semantic Memory:

Can Nonhumans Have Episodic/Semantic Memory?

• Debate exists; evidence is mixed.

Associative Structures (Semantic Networks):

• Nodes: Represent concepts/words.

• Links: Represent relationships between nodes.

Models of Semantic Memory:

1. Collins and Quillian’s Hierarchical Network Model (1969):

   • Cognitive Economy: Properties are stored at the highest relevant level.

   • Evidence: Sentence verification task:

     • Faster: “A canary can sing.”

     • Slower: “A canary can fly.”

   • Limitations:

     • Conrad (1972): Unfamiliar statements (e.g., “A canary has skin”) are slower to verify due to unfamiliarity, not hierarchy distance.

     • Rips, Shoben, & Smith (1973): Typicality effect: Faster for typical members (e.g., “A canary is a bird”) than atypical ones (e.g., “A penguin is a bird”).

2. Collins and Loftus’ Spreading Activation Model (1975):

   • Activation spreads from one concept to related ones.

   • Priming Effects:

     • Semantic Priming: Faster for related prime-target pairs.

     • Mediated Priming: Indirect relationships activate less strongly.

     • Subliminal Priming: Activation occurs even without conscious awareness.

Concepts and Categories:

• Levels of Categorization:

  • Basic: e.g., "dog" (fastest retrieval).

  • Subordinate: e.g., "beagle" (specific).

  • Superordinate: e.g., "animal" (general).

• Family Resemblance: Categorization based on shared attributes.

• Typicality Effect: Faster processing for typical category members.

• Theories:

  • Exemplar: Based on specific instances.

  • Prototype: Based on an abstract average.

Schemas and Scripts:

• Schema: Generalized framework for knowledge (e.g., classroom).

• Script: Predictable sequence of events (e.g., dining at a restaurant).

• Bransford & Johnson (1972): Providing schema (e.g., a title) improves recall of confusing passages.

Distributional Semantics:

• “You shall know a word by the company it keeps.”

Retrieval and Forgetting

Retrieval:

• Definition: Reinstating a memory pattern via spreading activation.

• Role of Retrieval Cues: Right cues make memories accessible.

Encoding Specificity Effect:

• Memories are best retrieved in contexts matching encoding.

Key Studies:

• Godden & Baddeley (1975): Context-dependent memory (underwater vs. land).

• Eich et al. (1975): State-dependent memory (tobacco vs. marijuana).

• Eich & Metcalfe (1989): Mood-dependent memory (happy vs. sad).

Mood Effects:

• Mood Congruence: Easier to retrieve mood-matching information.

• Mood Dependence: Retrieval is better when mood at encoding matches retrieval mood.

Recognition Memory:

• Tasks: Forced-choice and Yes/No recognition tests.

• Signal Detection Theory:

  • Outcomes: Hit, Miss, False Alarm, Correct Rejection.

• Word Frequency Effect:

  • High-frequency words: Better recalled.

  • Low-frequency words: Better recognized.

Inhibition:

• Mechanism interfering with recall of specific memories.

• Anderson et al. (1994): Retrieval practice paradigm (RP+, RP-, NRP).

• PTSD Therapy: Recalling nontraumatic memories may inhibit traumatic ones.

• Part-Set Cueing: Partial cues impair recall of other items.

Interference:

• Proactive: Older info blocks new info.

• Retroactive: New info blocks older info.

Source Monitoring Error:

• Confusion about the origin of a memory.

Developmental Memory

Prenatal Learning:

• Key Findings:

  • Fetuses respond to sounds in the 3rd trimester.

  • Techniques: fMEG, fetal heartbeat, movements.

Infants:

• Techniques: Eye gaze, non-nutritive sucking, conditioned head-turn.

• Speech Segmentation: Infants recognize word boundaries via transitional probabilities.

• Infantile Amnesia:

  • Adults lose memories from early childhood.

  • Explanations: Neurological development, self-awareness, language acquisition.

Episodic Memory Development:

• Slower maturation than semantic memory.

• Simcock & Hayne (2002): Language at age 3-4 predicts later recall.

Aging and Memory

Challenges of Cognitive Aging Research:

• Cross-sectional studies suffer from cohort effects.

• Combining longitudinal and cross-sectional studies is ideal.

Key Theories:

• Processing Speed Theory: Slower cognitive processing with age.

• Inhibition Theory: Difficulty suppressing irrelevant information.

• Cognitive Reserve: Education/bilingualism may buffer cognitive decline.

Bilingual Advantage:

• Clear benefits in executive control for children and older adults.

Language and Aging:

• Vocabulary expands idiosyncratically in adulthood, shaped by personal experience.