Exam Reviewer Biology 2

Integumentary System

Function:

• Protection

• Sensation

• Secretion

• Excretion

• Body Temperature Regulation

• Locomotion

Parts of the Skin:

1. Epidermis – Outer layer; protects body and regulates temperature.

2. Dermis – Layer under the epidermis; contains nerves, blood vessels, oil and sweat glands.

3. Hypodermis – Deepest layer; contains adipose tissue for insulation.

4. Hair – Grows from follicles; helps with sensation.

5. Sweat Gland – Produces sweat to regulate temperature.

6. Veins – A blood vessel that returns blood from the skin to the heart.

7. Hair Bulb — forms the base of the hair follicle, cells divide to grow hair

8. Artery — A blood vessel that carries blood from the heart, the blood carries nutrients and oxygen.

9. Adipose Tissue — AKA: Body Fat, acts as layer of insulation and protects the muscles and internal organs.

Different Layers of the skin:

1. Stratum Corneum — Dead Skin Cells

2. Stratum Lucidum — Thickest part of the skin (transparent)

3. Stratum Granulosum — Rounded/Granules (visible thru microscope)

4. Stratum Spinosum — Tightly Packed (desmosomos)

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• Langerhans Cell - Immunity & Allergens, Macrophege

• Melanocytes — Melanin (Gives Color)

1. Stratum Basele — Form new skill cell

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• Merkel Cell — Touch/Light

• Basal Cell — Forms skin Cell

• Basement — Separates the epidermis from the dermis

1. Epidermis — Outer Layer

Skin Glands:

• Eccrine – Produces clear sweat; controls temperature.

• Apocrine – Found in armpits and genital areas; produces body odor.

• Ceruminous – Produces earwax.

• Sebaceous – Secretes oil (sebum) to keep skin and hair moisturized.

• Mammary – Produces milk during pregnancy.

Types of Coverings in Other Organisms:

Body Coverings — provides protection to survive and adapt to the environment

• Sponges (Porifera) – Pinacocytes, porous structure, Spicules

• Cnidaria (Jellyfish, Corals) – Two tissue layers (ectoderm & endoderm), Cnidocytes.

• Platyhelminthes (Flatworms) – Tegument for protection.

• Nematoda (Roundworms) – Cuticle covering.

• Mollusca – Mantle, periostracum, nacre.

• Arthropoda – Exoskeleton, setae.

• Annelida — Cuticle, setae, Clitellum

• Echinodermata (Starfish, Sea Urchins) – Spines.

Body Coverings in Animals

1. Fur/Hair – Found in mammals; provides warmth and protection.

2. Scales – Found in reptiles; prevents water loss.

3. Moist Skin – Found in amphibians; aids respiration.

4. Feathers – Found in birds; helps in flight, temperature regulation and camoflage.

5. Shells – Found in turtles and snails; provides protection against buoyancy, provides stable platform for movement, and barrier.

6. Exoskeleton – Found in insects, arachnids, and crustaceans; offers external support.

Insects - 6 feet

Arachnids - 8 Feet

Crustaceans - 10/12 Feet

Primary Body Coverings in Plants

• Cuticle – Waxy, waterproof layer preventing water loss.

• Epidermis – Outer layer regulating gas exchange and protection.

• Periderm – Protective layer replacing epidermis in woody plants.

Secondary Body Coverings in Plants

• Bark – Protects against pathogens and damage.

• Scales – Covers buds, stems, or roots.

• Trichomes (Hairs) – Reduce water loss, provide insulation.

• Lenticels – Pores for gas exchange.

• Gums & Resins – Seal wounds and protect from infections.

• Thorns, Spines, Prickles – Defense against herbivores.

• Husk — Protects Fruits

• Tubers — Storage are of plants

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 - LESSON 2 REVIEWER

Musculo-Skeletal System (Plants & Animals)

I. SKELETONS OF ANIMALS

External Skeletal Systems

1. Exoskeleton (Arthropods - insects, crustaceans, arachnids) – Chitinous, provides protection and support.

2. Cuticle (Nematodes, Annelids) – Thin, flexible protective layer.

3. Shell (Mollusks) – Made of calcium carbonate, protects internal organs.

Internal Skeletal Systems

1. Hydrostatic Skeleton (Worms, Cnidarians) – Fluid-filled body for shape maintenance.

2. Pseudoskeleton (Sea Cucumbers) – Water-filled body wall for support.

3. Endoskeleton (Echinoderms) – Calcified ossicles provide internal support.

Skeletal Elements

• Chitin – Found in arthropod exoskeletons.

• Calcium Carbonate – Found in mollusk shells and echinoderm skeletons.

• Silica – Found in sponges and radiolarians.

II. BONES & CARTILAGE

• Bones – Hard, rigid structures forming the body’s framework, made of calcium and phosphorus for strength.

• Cartilage – Tough, flexible tissue that cushions joints and reduces friction for smooth movement.

> Two Types

• Axial-Center (Skull-Hip)

• Appendicular limbs (Arms & Legs)

• 206 Bones

> Homologous Structure

• Same Structures, Different Function

• Legs — Femus

• Humerus — forming joints at the shoulder and the elbow.

> Analogous — Different Structure, Same Function

III. MUSCULAR SYSTEM IN ANIMALS

Common Type of Muscles

1. Striated Muscles — Fast, Coordinated Movement.

2. Smooth Muscles — Slow, Involuntary Actions.

3. Hydrostatic Muscles — Maintain Shape, Movement.

4. Myoepithelial Cells — Contractile Epithelial Cells.

Types of Muscle Tissue

Muscular System - Is a complex network of tissues responsible for moment, stability, and various bodily functions.

1. Skeletal Muscles – Striated, voluntary muscles attached to bones via tendons.

2. Cardiac Muscles – Striated, branched, mononucleated; found in the heart, involuntary control.

3. Smooth Muscles – Non-striated, spindle-shaped, Single Nucleus; found in internal organs, involuntary control. Hormones, Autonomic Nervous System.

Muscles in Invertebrates

• Porifera (Sponges) – Siliceous/calcareous spicules, myocytes for contraction.

• Cnidaria (Jellyfish, Corals) – Hydrostatic skeleton, epitheliomuscular cells for movement.

• Platyhelminthes (Flatworms) – Longitudinal & circular muscles for movement.

• Nematoda (Roundworms) – Longitudinal muscles for movement, dorsal muscles for posture.

• Annelida (Segmented Worms) – Hydrostatic skeleton, setae muscles for bristle movement.

• Mollusca (Mollusks) – Foot muscles for movement, mantle muscles for shell closure.

• Arthropoda (Insects, Crustaceans) – Striated muscles for flight/movement, smooth muscles for organ function.

• Echinodermata (Starfish, Sea Urchins) – Water vascular system muscles for movement.

IV. MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM IN PLANTS

Supportive Structures

• Cell Wall – Provides shape and support.

• Cellulose – Main structural component of plant walls.

• Lignin – Adds strength and rigidity.

• Pectin – Binds plant cells together.

Support Tissues

• Collenchyma – Flexible supportive cells.

• Sclerenchyma – Rigid, fibrous cells (e.g., wood fibers).

• Xylem – Conducts water and provides structural support.

Structural Elements

• Stems – Support leaves, flowers, and fruits.

• Branches – Distribute weight for plant growth.

• Roots – Anchor plants and absorb nutrients.

• Wood – Secondary xylem tissue for support.

Movement Mechanisms

• Cellular Turgor Pressure – Water pressure keeps plants upright.

• Cell Wall Relaxation – Allows movement by changing cell shape.

• Hormone-Mediated Responses – Hormones regulate growth and differentiation.

Types of Plant Movements

• Tropisms – Directional growth response (e.g., phototropism, gravitropism).

• Nastic Movements – Non-directional response (e.g., touch, temperature changes).

• Circumnutation – Spontaneous rhythmic movements in plants.

Hypertonic conditions: Plasmlyzed -Shrink

Isotonic conditions: Flaccid - Balance

Hypotonic Conditions: Turgid - Swelling

Examples of Tropism:

Phototropism, Geotropism, Chemotropism, Thigmotropism, and Hydrotropism.

Photonastic Movement — Day

Thigmonastic Movement — Touch

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 - LESSON 3 REVIEWER

Transport System & Gas Exchange (Plants & Animals)

I. TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN ANIMALS

• Transport System of Sponges: Water in & Water out

-Osculum - Exit part H2O

-Ostia - Pores

-Spongeceal - Space Cavity

-Mesohyl - Tubular Shape

• Transport System of Hydra: Tentacles,

  -Gastrovascular Cavity - Digest & Transport

• Transport System of Roundworm:

-Body Covering: Derived from Ectoderm

-Pseudocoelom (Ex: Phylum Nematyhelminthes)

-Digestive tract: Derived from Endoderm

-Muscle Layer: Derived from Mesoderm

Types of Circulatory Systems:

• Open Circulation

  • Blood (or hemolymph) is not confined to vessels.

  • Uses diffusion for transport.

  • Less efficient oxygen delivery.

  • Found in arthropods (insects, crustaceans) and mollusks.

• Closed Circulation

  • Blood is confined to vessels.

  • More efficient oxygen delivery.

  • Regulated circulation.

  • Found in vertebrates (fish, amphibians, mammals).

• Heart

• Atria - Receive

• Ventricles - Pump

• Right side de-oxygenated blood to the lungs

• Left side oxygenated blood to the body

• Contains valves to prevent the back flow of blood

Parts of the Heart & Their Functions:

• Right Atrium – Receives de-oxygenated blood from the body.

• Right Ventricle – Pumps de-oxygenated blood to the lungs.

• Left Atrium – Receives oxygenated blood from the lungs.

• Left Ventricle – Pumps oxygenated blood to the body.

• Valves (Tricuspid, Pulmonary, Aortic, Mitral) – Prevent back-flow of blood.

Blood Vessels & Their Functions:

1. Arteries – Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart under high pressure (e.g., aorta).

2. Veins – Carry de-oxygenated blood to the heart under low pressure (e.g., Vena Cava).

3. Capillaries – Thin-walled; connect arteries and veins for gas and nutrient exchange (e.g., alveolar capillaries).

Components of Blood:

• Red Blood Cells (44%) – Contain hemoglobin; carry oxygen.

• White Blood Cells (<1%) – Fight infections.

• Plasma (55%) – Carries nutrients, hormones, and waste.

• Platelets (<1%) – Help in blood clotting.

• Blood Pressure — Transported at high speed

Procedure

1st Tricuspid Valve

2nd Pulmunary Valve

3rd Lungs

4th Mitrel Valve

5th Aortic Valve

1. Vena Cava

2. Right Atrium

3. Right Ventricle

4. Pulmonary Artery

5. Pulmunary Vein

6. Left Atrium

7. Left Ventricle

8. Aorta

II. TRANSPORT SYSTEMS IN PLANTS

Xylem & Phloem Functions:

• Xylem:

  • Transports water and minerals from roots to leaves.

  • Moves substances upward via transpiration.

  • Composed of dead elongated cells with lignified walls.

• Phloem:

  • Transports sucrose and amino acids.

  • Moves substances up and down through translocation.

  • Made of living cells arranged in tubes.

III. GAS EXCHANGE IN ANIMALS

Respiratory System & Its Parts:

1. Nose & Nasal Cavity – Filters, warms, and humidifies air.

2. Mouth & Oral Cavity – Alternative air entry; assists in speech.

3. Pharynx (Throat) – Common passageway for food and air.

4. Larynx (Voice Box) – Prevents food from entering the airway.

5. Trachea (Windpipe) – Allows airflow to and from the lungs.

6. Bronchi – Main airways leading to each lung.

7. Bronchioles – Smaller branches leading to alveoli.

8. Alveoli – Air sacs where gas exchange occurs.

Gas Exchange Process:

• Oxygen (O₂) Role:

  • Enters alveoli during inhalation.

  • Diffuses into the bloodstream and binds to hemoglobin.

  • Delivered to body cells for respiration.

• Carbon Dioxide (CO₂) Role:

  • Produced as a waste product of cellular respiration.

  • Diffuses from blood into alveoli.

  • Exhaled from the lungs.

IV. GAS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS

Stomata & Their Function:

• Stomata – Microscopic pores on leaf surfaces for gas exchange.

• Guard Cells – Regulate stomatal opening and closing to control water loss.