Science, Scientific theory, & Theory of science

What is science?

• Production of knowledge with systematic methods

• Science, organized knowledge; as operation a systematical and methodical gathering of knowledge in a certain area

• Epistemology - Theory of knowledge

• Knowledge - facts without methods

• Empirics (Scientific research ex. experiments and observations) → Test theories and models

• Science is the same as knowledge but includes the method that is used in order to get knowledge

What is required in (social) science in order to be called science?

• New research must be based on previous research (knowledge development)

• Research must have a scientific language (terms and concepts)

• The research is based on observations of reality (empiricism)

• The research conducts systematic and honest investigations (method)

• The research must be researcher-independent, transparent & value-free (objectivity and openness)

• Research in social sciences must describe and explain our society

• The research must be generalizing. It should search for and explain patterns, connections, and regularities that can be linked to several phenomena

• If the science doesn’t follow all steps it is bad science

Scientific theory

• Starts with a hypothesis →an assumption about reality

• The hypothesis is tested → empirics

• A theory is a tool to help us understand our surroundings

• Examples:

• The theory of gravitation (Newton, 1680)

• The theory of relativity (Einstein, 1900)

• Theories are valid until they are refuted

• Karl Popper - Theory of science needs to be falsifiable rather than verifiable - Creates new knowledge

Theory of science

• A discussion about science without references to empirics but rather philosophy

• Scientific methods “qualative/quantative”

• Philosophic reflection - In what way is science practiced and how should one do?

• The demarcation problem - Where do we put the line for what can be considered as knowledge?

• Epistemology - Question regarding the origin of knowledge (Theory of how we get knowledge)

• Induction (Empirism)

2. Deduction (Rationalism)

Topics - Social studies

Sociology

• The relation between people

• Central concepts: Ethnicity, social standing, alienation, relation between men and women, religion, the importance of traditions→Individual & Group

Political science

• How are political decisions decided?

• How is society organized in order to decide and carry out decisions?

• How is the power distributed in a society?

• How much should politics affect peoples individual choices?

Economics

• Use of resources

• What decides production and consumption?

• What creates economic growth?

• Political decisions influence on production

Geography

• Interdisciplinary

• The relation between humans and nature - How does it affect each other?

Instrument of social science

• Facts, concepts, models, and theories → Offers a nuanced discussion about society

• 1. Facts - Claims about reality. Ex. every year the population is increased by 1.1%

• 2. Concepts - Words that has meaning. Defines, explains, and describes. Ex. power and democracy; the meaning differ but has some common ground→ generalization

• 3. Model - Ex. the curve of supply and demand

• 4. Theory - Predicitions about the future. Offers an explanation to different social phenomena, ex. Marxism

What is truth?

• The view of truth has changed over decades

• Correspondence and Coherence are two essential criterias in scientific truth

• Some scientific and non-scientific examples on truth-criterias:

• Correspondence: Means that a contention corresponds with actual circumstances and empirical evidence that can be checked.

• Coherence: Means that the contention is built up on logical ground and “hang together”. The contention isn’t contradictory and it gets support from earlier facts and theories. - Believe in authority: Substantiate contentions are reffered to authorians. Earlier in history that could be in the Bible or other authorities in church. Today it is more common to use experts and scientists. - Traditions, common sense, and public opinion: Some contentions feel obvious, because they mirror something we humans have believed since way back. Because it is “natural” or something “that all agrees on”. - Pragmatic contentions: Focus on practical consequences of a contention. If a contention has been useful in practice, we shall also believe in it.