Science, Scientific theory, & Theory of science

Production of knowledge with systematic methods
Science, organized knowledge; as operation a systematical and methodical gathering of knowledge in a certain area
Epistemology - Theory of knowledge
Knowledge - facts without methods
Empirics (Scientific research ex. experiments and observations) → Test theories and models
Science is the same as knowledge but includes the method that is used in order to get knowledge

New research must be based on previous research (knowledge development)
Research must have a scientific language (terms and concepts)
The research is based on observations of reality (empiricism)
The research conducts systematic and honest investigations (method)
The research must be researcher-independent, transparent & value-free (objectivity and openness)
Research in social sciences must describe and explain our society
The research must be generalizing. It should search for and explain patterns, connections, and regularities that can be linked to several phenomena
If the science doesn’t follow all steps it is bad science

Starts with a hypothesis →an assumption about reality
The hypothesis is tested → empirics
A theory is a tool to help us understand our surroundings
Examples:
The theory of gravitation (Newton, 1680)
The theory of relativity (Einstein, 1900)
Theories are valid until they are refuted
Karl Popper - Theory of science needs to be falsifiable rather than verifiable - Creates new knowledge

A discussion about science without references to empirics but rather philosophy
Scientific methods “qualative/quantative”
Philosophic reflection - In what way is science practiced and how should one do?
The demarcation problem - Where do we put the line for what can be considered as knowledge?
Epistemology - Question regarding the origin of knowledge (Theory of how we get knowledge)
Induction (Empirism)

The relation between people
Central concepts: Ethnicity, social standing, alienation, relation between men and women, religion, the importance of traditions→Individual & Group

Facts, concepts, models, and theories → Offers a nuanced discussion about society
1. Facts - Claims about reality. Ex. every year the population is increased by 1.1%
2. Concepts - Words that has meaning. Defines, explains, and describes. Ex. power and democracy; the meaning differ but has some common ground→ generalization
3. Model - Ex. the curve of supply and demand
4. Theory - Predicitions about the future. Offers an explanation to different social phenomena, ex. Marxism

The view of truth has changed over decades
Correspondence and Coherence are two essential criterias in scientific truth
Some scientific and non-scientific examples on truth-criterias:
Correspondence: Means that a contention corresponds with actual circumstances and empirical evidence that can be checked.
Coherence: Means that the contention is built up on logical ground and “hang together”. The contention isn’t contradictory and it gets support from earlier facts and theories. - Believe in authority: Substantiate contentions are reffered to authorians. Earlier in history that could be in the Bible or other authorities in church. Today it is more common to use experts and scientists. - Traditions, common sense, and public opinion: Some contentions feel obvious, because they mirror something we humans have believed since way back. Because it is “natural” or something “that all agrees on”. - Pragmatic contentions: Focus on practical consequences of a contention. If a contention has been useful in practice, we shall also believe in it.