Nutrition Final Exam

1. Essential Nutrients, Nutrient Density, and Energy Density

• Essential Nutrients: Nutrients that the body cannot produce on its own, so they must be obtained through the diet. These include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals, and water.

• Nutrient Density: Refers to how much nutrients a food contains compared to its calorie content. For example, spinach is nutrient-dense because it provides vitamins and minerals without many calories.

• Energy Density: The number of calories per gram of food. Foods high in fat (like nuts) are energy-dense, while fruits and vegetables have low energy density because they are high in water and fiber.

2. Calculations of Kilocalories

• To calculate calories from macronutrients:

  • Carbohydrates = 4 kcal/g

  • Proteins = 4 kcal/g

  • Fats = 9 kcal/g

  • Alcohol = 7 kcal/g

• Example: If a food contains 20g of carbs, 5g of protein, and 10g of fat: Calories from Carbs=20g×4=80 kcal\text{Calories from Carbs} = 20g \times 4 = 80 \, \text{kcal}Calories from Carbs=20g×4=80kcal Calories from Protein=5g×4=20 kcal\text{Calories from Protein} = 5g \times 4 = 20 \, \text{kcal}Calories from Protein=5g×4=20kcal Calories from Fat=10g×9=90 kcal\text{Calories from Fat} = 10g \times 9 = 90 \, \text{kcal}Calories from Fat=10g×9=90kcal Total calories = 80 + 20 + 90 = 190 kcal

3. Percent Calculations of Fats, Carbohydrates, Proteins

• To find the percent of calories from each macronutrient: Percent from Carbs=(80190)×100=42.1%\text{Percent from Carbs} = \left(\frac{80}{190}\right) \times 100 = 42.1\%Percent from Carbs=(19080​)×100=42.1% Percent from Protein=(20190)×100=10.5%\text{Percent from Protein} = \left(\frac{20}{190}\right) \times 100 = 10.5\%Percent from Protein=(19020​)×100=10.5% Percent from Fat=(90190)×100=47.4%\text{Percent from Fat} = \left(\frac{90}{190}\right) \times 100 = 47.4\%Percent from Fat=(19090​)×100=47.4%

4. Types of Research Studies

• Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs): Participants are randomly assigned to treatment or control groups to test the effect of a variable.

• Cohort Studies: Follows a group of people over time to assess health outcomes based on exposures.

• Case-Control Studies: Compares individuals with a disease to those without to identify potential risk factors.

• Observational Studies: No manipulation of variables, just observation of natural behaviors or exposures.

5. RDAs, EARs, ULs, %DV, AIs, AMDRs

• RDA: The daily intake level that meets the needs of 97–98% of healthy individuals.

• EAR: Average intake level that is estimated to meet the needs of 50% of individuals.

• UL: The highest level of nutrient intake likely to pose no risk of adverse health effects.

• %DV: Found on food labels; helps consumers understand how a nutrient fits into the daily diet based on a 2000-calorie diet.

• AI: Adequate Intake, used when an RDA is not available.

• AMDR: Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Range; specifies the percentage of total calories that should come from carbohydrates, proteins, and fats.

6. Dietary Guidelines, MyPyramid, MyPlate

• Dietary Guidelines: Provide recommendations for healthy eating patterns to promote health and prevent chronic diseases.

• MyPyramid: A previous food guidance system that showed servings from different food groups in a pyramid shape.

• MyPlate: A more modern food guide, showing a plate divided into sections for fruits, vegetables, grains, and protein with a side of dairy.

7. Function of the Digestive Tract

• The digestive system breaks down food into absorbable nutrients. This includes the mouth (chewing and saliva), stomach (acid and enzymes), small intestine (nutrient absorption), and large intestine (water absorption).

8. How to Read Nutrition Facts Panels

• Look at serving size, calories, macronutrient breakdown (fats, carbs, proteins), micronutrients (vitamins and minerals), and %DV.

9. Structure and Function of Each Area of the Digestive Tract

• Mouth: Mechanical breakdown (chewing) and chemical breakdown (saliva with enzymes).

• Esophagus: Transports food to the stomach.

• Stomach: Uses acid and enzymes to break down food.

• Small Intestine: Major site for nutrient absorption, with villi and microvilli increasing surface area.

• Large Intestine: Absorbs water and salts; houses gut bacteria.

10. Digestion of Carbohydrate, Protein, and Fat

• Carbohydrates: Digested by enzymes like amylase in the mouth and pancreas, broken down into monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose).

• Proteins: Broken down by pepsin in the stomach, then further digested into amino acids in the small intestine.

• Fats: Emulsified by bile and digested by lipases in the small intestine into fatty acids and glycerol.

11. Lecithin and Bile

• Lecithin: A type of phospholipid that helps emulsify fats, making them easier to digest.

• Bile: Produced in the liver and stored in the gallbladder, bile helps emulsify fat to aid digestion.

12. Chyme

• Chyme is the semi-liquid mixture of food and digestive juices that moves from the stomach to the small intestine.

13. Villi and Microvilli

• Villi: Small finger-like projections in the small intestine that increase surface area for nutrient absorption.

• Microvilli: Tiny hair-like structures on the villi, further increasing surface area for nutrient absorption.

14. Compounds Secreted in the Stomach

• Gastric Juice: Contains hydrochloric acid (HCl), pepsinogen (inactive form of pepsin), mucus, and intrinsic factor (needed for vitamin B12 absorption).

15. Diseases: Heartburn, Ulcers, Diabetes, Celiac Disease, Lactose Intolerance

• Heartburn: A condition where stomach acid refluxes into the esophagus.

• Ulcers: Open sores in the stomach lining, often caused by H. pylori bacteria.

• Diabetes: A metabolic disorder involving insulin resistance or insufficient insulin production.

• Celiac Disease: An autoimmune disorder triggered by gluten, damaging the small intestine.

• Lactose Intolerance: Inability to digest lactose due to a deficiency of lactase enzyme.

16. Primary Fuel for Muscles and Other Cells

• Carbohydrates (glucose) are the primary fuel for muscles during exercise and are critical for energy in all body cells.

17. Monosaccharides

• The three main monosaccharides are glucose, fructose, and galactose.

18. Healthy Types of Fats

• Healthy fats include unsaturated fats (e.g., olive oil, avocados) and omega-3 fatty acids (found in fish, flaxseeds).

19. Essential Fatty Acids, Omega 3s, and Omega 6s

• Omega-3s: Essential fatty acids that support heart health (found in fish, walnuts).

• Omega-6s: Found in plant oils; essential but too much may cause inflammation.

• Essential Fatty Acids: Include omega-3s and omega-6s, which must be consumed in the diet.

20. LDL, VLDL, HDL, Lipoproteins, Triglycerides

• LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein): Often referred to as “bad cholesterol” because it can contribute to plaque buildup in arteries.

• HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein): Known as “good cholesterol” because it helps remove LDL from the bloodstream.

• VLDL (Very-Low-Density Lipoprotein): Transports triglycerides in the blood.

• Triglycerides: The most common type of fat in the body, stored in fat cells.

21. Positive and Negative Nitrogen Balance

• Positive Nitrogen Balance: Occurs when nitrogen intake exceeds nitrogen loss (e.g., during growth, pregnancy, or muscle building).

• Negative Nitrogen Balance: Occurs when nitrogen loss exceeds intake (e.g., during illness or malnutrition).

22. Protein Requirements

• Protein needs depend on body weight and activity level. For an average adult, it’s about 0.8g of protein per kg body weight.

23. Vegetarianism Meal Patterns

• A balanced vegetarian diet includes adequate sources of protein (legumes, tofu), iron (plant sources like spinach), and vitamin B12 (fortified foods).

24. Marasmus and Kwashiorkor

• Marasmus: Severe malnutrition due to insufficient calories and protein, leading to muscle wasting.

• Kwashiorkor: Protein deficiency, often occurring when children are weaned from breast milk too early.

25. Essential, Nonessential, and Conditionally Essential Amino Acids

• Essential: Cannot be made by the body (e.g., leucine, lysine).

• Nonessential: Can be made by the body (e.g., alanine, asparagine).

• Conditionally Essential: Some amino acids become essential during illness or stress.

26. Alcohol: Calories per Gram, Metabolism, and Nutrient Deficiencies

• Alcohol provides 7 kcal/g.

• Metabolized mainly in the liver, and excessive consumption can lead to deficiencies in vitamins (B vitamins, for example).

27. Fat and Water-Soluble Vitamins

• Fat-Soluble Vitamins: A, D, E, K.

• Water-Soluble Vitamins: B-complex (e.g., B12, folate), Vitamin C.

28. Antioxidants

• Antioxidants like vitamins C and E protect cells from oxidative stress and damage.

29. Vitamin and Mineral Functions, Sources, Deficiencies, and Toxicity

• Vitamin D: Helps calcium absorption; found in fortified foods, sunlight; deficiency causes rickets.

• Iron: Crucial for oxygen transport; found in red meat, beans; deficiency causes anemia.

• Calcium: Important for bone health; found in dairy, fortified foods; deficiency causes osteoporosis.

30. Water Functions, Balance, and Body Fat Measurement

• Water maintains hydration, aids in digestion, and supports temperature regulation. Water balance is the balance between intake and excretion.

31. BMI and Formula

• BMI (Body Mass Index) is calculated as weight (kg) divided by height (m²). It is a measure of body fat.

32. Eating Disorders

• Includes anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, and binge eating disorder.

33. Nutrition in Athletes

• Athletes require higher energy (calories) and specific nutrients (carbs, protein, fats) to support training and recovery.

34. Nutrition Concerns During Pregnancy and Infancy

• Increased need for folate, iron, and calcium during pregnancy. Infants need adequate breast milk or formula for proper development.

35. Nutrition Concerns for Toddlers, Adolescents, and Older Adults

• Toddlers need balanced nutrition for growth.

• Adolescents need additional calories and protein for growth.

• Older adults may need fewer calories but more vitamins and minerals (e.g., vitamin D, calcium).

36. Food Safety

• Be aware of foodborne illnesses caused by pathogens (e.g., Salmonella). Prevent cross-contamination, store foods properly, and cook to safe temperatures.

37. Food Insecurity and Consumerism

• Food insecurity refers to the lack of access to enough food for an active, healthy life.

• Consumerism in nutrition refers to understanding food marketing and making informed choices.