Catholicism Reformed and Reorganized

Catholicism Reformed and Reorganized

Background: The Call for Catholic Reform

• Terminology Debate:

  • Catholic Reformation: Preferred by Catholics, emphasizes genuine internal reform.

  • Counter-Reformation: Preferred by Protestants, emphasizes reaction against Protestantism.

  • Both Terms Applicable: The movement involved both genuine reform and a response to the Protestant challenge.

• Long-Standing Reform Demands:

  • Demand for reform is as old as the abuses themselves; expressed through calls for general/ecumenical church councils.

  • The Conciliar Movement (defeated around 1450) showed signs of revival post-1500, as the Lutheran upheaval provoked renewed calls for a council.

Political Obstacles to Reform

• Charles V's Position:

  • Sought to have the pope assemble an empowered council to remove church abuses and reduce German conversions to Lutheranism, aiming for German unity under imperial authority.

• Francis I of France (1515-1547) - Opposition to Council:

  • Reasons for opposition:

  • Already had desired control over the Gallican church via the Concordat of Bologna (1516).

  • Feared strengthening Charles V and Habsburg power, surrounded by Habsburg territories (Germany, Netherlands, Spain, Italy).

  • Contemporaries feared Habsburg “universal monarchy.”

  • Francis I's Strategy:

  • Actively encouraged German Protestants to maintain dissent.

  • Used influence in Rome to oppose calling a council.

  • Political interests superseded the unity of religion.

The Council of Trent (1545-1563) - Critical for Learning Questions (LEQs)

• Convening the Council:

  • Reforming cardinals concluded the urgency of reforming was too significant to avoid risks.

  • Pope Paul III summoned a council in 1537, which was abandoned due to wars and finally assembled in 1545 at Trent (located at the Alpine borders of Germany and Italy).

  • This council shaped the future of modern Catholicism until the Second Vatican Council (1960s).

• Attendance Issues - Shows Council Limitations:

  • The council was never well attended, with previous councils having up to 500 prelates; Trent sometimes recorded as low as 20-30 attendees.

  • Important justification decree states only 60 prelates were present, indicating international councils were no longer a suitable means for regulating Catholic affairs.

• The Episcopal Movement - Threat to Papal Authority:

  • A party of bishops believed that bishops assembled collectively were superior to the pope.

  • Cardinal legates, appointed by papal authority, aimed to prevent this.

  • The old conciliar issue was raised despite low attendance.

• Papal Victory - Preserving Centralization:

  • Final ruling securing papal authority decreed that no act of the council was valid unless accepted by the Holy See.

  • The popes successfully resisted efforts to limit papal power, preserving the papacy as a unifying center for the Catholic Church and preventing disunity akin to Protestant churches.

Council of Trent: Defining Catholic Doctrine - Essential for LEQs

• Context by 1545:

  • The Protestant movement had progressed significantly for reconciliation to be feasible since Protestants, especially Calvinists, did not wish to belong to Rome under any conditions.

  • The council made no concessions to Protestantism.

Major Doctrinal Decisions:

Council of Trent: Church Reforms

• Why Reforms Difficult:

  • It was easier to define doctrines than to reform ingrained abuses, which were rooted habits in people's lives.

Major Reform Decrees:

• Monastic Orders and Indulgences:

  • Actions taken against abuses while upholding principle.

• Bishops' Duties:

  • Bishops must habitually reside in dioceses, carefully attend to proper duties, and exercise administrative control over the clergy in their dioceses.

• Pluralism:

  • Checked the abuse of holding multiple church offices simultaneously.

• Church Officials:

  • Steps taken to ensure competence among church officials.

• Seminary Education:

  • A seminary was ordered in each diocese for the training of priests, providing educated clergy.

The New Catholicism: Religious Renewal

• Context in Italy:

  • The Renaissance was increasingly pagan, and the Sack of Rome (1527) caused even Catholics to lose respect for the Roman clergy.

  • The voices of moralists began to be heard in this context.

• Reforming Popes:

  • The line of Renaissance popes was succeeded by reforming popes, starting with Pope Paul III (1534-1549), who insisted on the primacy of the papal office as a moral and religious force.

  • Unlike his predecessors, he regarded the office as moral/religious, not just political.

• Episcopal Initiative:

  • Many bishops began enforcing stricter practices on their initiative.

• New Catholic Religious Sense:

  • Centered on reverence for the sacraments and a mystical awe for the church as a divine institution.

  • Men and women founded many new religious orders.

New Religious Orders

Major Orders Founded:

• Missionary Fervor:

  • More characteristic of Catholics for a long period, reaching into Asia and the Americas.

  • In Europe, there was an intense desire for the reconversion of Protestants.

  • Catholic missions among the poor, like those led by St. Vincent de Paul in Paris, established a contrast with Protestant churches that produced nothing comparable.

Catholic vs. Protestant Missions in Colonial Context

• Protestant Clergy:

  • Tended to take a hostile view of Native Americans and were more dependent upon laity,

  • Generally indifferent to the brutal treatment of enslaved Africans.

• Catholic Clergy:

  • Worked to convert and protect Indigenous peoples and to mitigate the brutal treatment of enslaved Africans.

St. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556) and the Jesuits - Essential for LEQs

• Background:

  • Originated in Spain, closely tied to ongoing Christian crusades.

  • Was a soldier in his youth, experiencing a religious conversion in 1521 before hearing of Luther, while Calvin was still a boy.

  • Committed to becoming a "soldier of the church"—a militant crusader for the pope and Holy See.

• Society of Jesus (Jesuits) - Authorized 1540:

  • Organizational innovation: a monastic order of a new type, less attached to cloisters and more involved in active participation in worldly affairs.

  • Admission Requirements:

  • Only men of proven strength of character and intellectual ability were accepted.

• Spiritual Training:

  • Involved arduous mystical training outlined in Loyola's Spiritual Exercises, requiring iron discipline.

  • Each Jesuit was to view their immediate superior as the infallibility of the Holy Church, adhering to a famous directive emphasizing blind obedience to the Church's teachings.

Jesuit Activities and Influence

Education:

• Jesuits became famous schoolmasters throughout Catholic Europe for 200 years, conducting approximately 500 schools aimed at boys from upper and middle classes.

• Curriculum:

  • Integrated Catholic faith with principles of gentlemanly deportment, including dancing and dramatics, along with Latin classics as the main substance of adolescent education, influenced by Renaissance humanism.

Work Among Ruling Classes:

• Jesuits specialized in working among ruling elites, often serving as confessors to kings.

• They frequently became involved in political intrigues, emphasizing a governance perspective.

• Church Governance:

  • At a time when Protestants subordinated the church to state or individual conscience, Jesuits maintained that the church itself was a divine institution—internationally organized, governed by the Roman pontiff, and demanding a special vow of obedience to the pope.

Role at Council of Trent:

• Jesuits fought obstinately and successfully in later sessions of the Council of Trent to uphold Rome’s position against national bishops.

Jesuit Missionary Work (by 1560)

• International Recruitment:

  • Jesuits acted as an international missionary force recruiting from all countries, including those with newly turned Protestant governments.

• English Catholic Example:

  • English Catholics trained as Jesuits on the Continent would return to England, attempting to overthrow what they viewed as the "heretic usurper" Elizabeth.

  • They saw the universal church as a higher cause than national independence in religious matters.

• Hotly Disputed Regions:

  • Jesuits poured efforts into regions with a balanced religious issue, such as France, Germany, Bohemia, Poland, and Hungary.

• Reconversion Success:

  • Jesuits managed to convert many individuals from Protestantism back to an interest in the old order, especially as abuses within the Catholic Church were corrected.

Enforcement Mechanisms: Censorship and Control

• Book Censorship:

  • Protestant authorities suppressed "papist" works while Catholic authorities repressed heretical authors and texts, regulating reading in dioceses through bishops of all denominations.

• Papal Index of Prohibited Books:

  • The Catholic world gravitated towards centralization under the pope, with lists of books published by the bishop of Rome that Catholics were forbidden to read without special permission, a practice not abandoned until the 1960s.

• Judicial and Police Machinery:

  • Enforcement mechanisms for conformity were set up across all nations, including the High Commission for 'recusants' in England and episcopal courts regulated by bishops.

The Inquisitions - Important

• Nature of the Term:

  • Originally a Roman law term (court of inquiry). Two distinct organizations used this name:

  • Spanish Inquisition: Established around 1480, initially aimed to identify Jewish and Muslim survivals in Spain. The Spanish Inquisition was particularly active against Protestantism, more severe than the Roman Inquisition, especially in areas like the Spanish Netherlands.

  • Roman/Papal Inquisition: Established in Rome in 1542 as a permanent committee of cardinals (Holy Office), generally less severe than the Spanish Inquisition, particularly in usage of torture.

Common Features:

• Both Inquisitions employed torture, considered heresy a supreme crime. All persons charged with crimes could be subjected to torture under existing laws; the harshest sentence could include burning alive.

• Roman Inquisition Limitations:

  • Intended to protect the faith’s purity in all Catholic regions, but national resistance resulted in a limited application beyond Italy; there was strong reluctance on the part of few Catholics wanting agents of Rome investigating local opinions.

State Power: The Ultimate Enforcement

• Machinery of Enforcing Belief:

  • The state apparatus proved to be an unmatchable force in enforcing religious belief. Where Protestants gained governmental control, they converted the populace; where Catholics maintained control, Protestants became minorities.

• Religious Outcomes Determined by War:

  • The fate of European religion became entwined with state conflicts, culminating about a century post-1560, when Catholic powers such as Spain, France, and Austria were officially Catholic while Protestant states remained smaller and weaker, leading to a century of religious warfare until around 1660.

Why Catholic Crusade Failed:

• Although a significant Catholic crusade could have potentially eradicated Protestantism, political divisions among Catholic powers ensured that such efforts never materialized.

Key Themes: Catholic Reformation

1. Genuine Reform vs. Counter-Activity:

   • Both elements existed within the Reformation; genuine reforms were likely to occur independently of Protestant stimuli, but the nature, measures adopted, and urgency starkly reflected an explicit reaction to Protestant challenges.

2. Centralization vs. Decentralization:

   • Papal victory at Trent preserved centralized authority under the pope, preventing fragmentation into national churches, contrasting with Protestant tendencies towards state churches and promoting a unified Catholic Church.

3. Doctrinal Clarity vs. Compromise:

   • The Council of Trent made clear, uncompromising positions against Protestantism while systematically defining and defending Catholic doctrines, given that by 1545 reconciliation was highly improbable.

4. Reform of Abuses vs. Preservation of Doctrine:

   • There was a dual approach wherein real abuses were addressed while preserving and clarifying all contested doctrines, demonstrating that abuses and doctrines could be treated as separate issues.

5. Spanish Leadership in Catholic Revival:

   • The Catholic revival was significantly galvanized in Spain, where Renaissance influence was less dominant, and where renewed Catholic sentiment originated, fostering missionary activity and new religious movements.

Comparison Chart: Catholic Reformation Features

Aspect: Before Trent/Reform vs. After Trent/Reform

Key Figures of the Catholic Reformation

• Pope Paul III (1534-1549):

  • First reforming pope post-Renaissance; called the Council of Trent.

• St. Ignatius Loyola (1491-1556):

  • Spanish soldier who founded the Jesuits; emphasized obedience to the pope.

• St. Teresa of Avila (1515-1582):

  • Spanish mystic who reformed the Carmelite order; wrote influential accounts of mysticism.

• St. Vincent de Paul (1581-1660):

  • French priest known for working among the poor and exemplifying the Catholic social mission.

Important Documents and Events of the Catholic Reformation

• Concordat of Bologna (1516):

  • Agreement between Francis I and the papacy establishing control over the Gallican church for France, explaining why Francis I could support the pope while opposing a council.

• Council of Trent (1545-1563):

  • Critical for shaping modern Catholicism until the 1960s, systematically defining Catholic doctrine, reforming abuses, preserving papal authority, and making no concessions to Protestantism.

• Establishment of Holy Office (1542):

  • A permanent committee of cardinals overseeing the Roman Inquisition, less severe than the Spanish Inquisition and not functioning outside Italy for long.

• Papal Index of Prohibited Books:

  • Maintained a list of books that Catholics were forbidden to read without special permission, showcasing the church's efforts to control ideas.

• Authorization of Society of Jesus (1540):

  • Jesuits became an international missionary force conducting about 500 schools and offering significant influences in political and educational spheres.

Geographic Impact by 1560

• Catholic Retention/Recovery:

  • Found in southern Europe (Spain, Portugal, Italy, and southern Germany) as well as Poland (where Jesuits helped maintain a Catholic majority).

• Mixed Results:

  • Germany still divided; Jesuits made inroads.

  • France remained a Catholic majority despite a large Huguenot minority.

  • Netherlands faced religious wars determining its outcome, while England had established Anglicanism, yet a Catholic minority persisted.

  • Native Irish remained Catholic despite the establishment of the Church of Ireland.

• Overall Assessment by 1560:

  • Religious divisions became a permanent element of European culture, with the Catholic Church renewed and reorganized, Protestant expansion checked but not eliminated, leading to a century of religious warfare ahead (to circa 1660).

PERISA Analysis: Catholic Reformation

Political:

• Papal Authority Strengthened:

  • The Council of Trent preserved papal supremacy over bishops, preventing fragmentation into national churches due to political divisions.

• State Power Remains Decisive:

  • Where Catholics held government control, Protestants became minorities, and the Spanish and French Inquisitions maintained order.

• Franco-Habsburg Rivalry:

  • Francis I opposed the council to uphold German religious division and furthered political interests over religious unity.

• Failed Catholic Crusade:

  • Although officially Catholic by 1560, a combined effort to eliminate Protestantism never materialized due to divisions among Catholic powers.

Economic:

• Property Retention:

  • The Catholic church retained vast properties without experiencing the confiscations common in Protestant areas.

• Jesuit Schools:

  • Promoted education among the upper and middle classes, conducting around 500 schools and creating economic impacts through training.

• Missionary Economic Systems:

  • Catholic missions in the Americas set up economic frameworks and took a different approach to labor compared to Protestant colonies.

• Seminary System:

  • Each diocese was mandated to establish a seminary, leading to economic investments in training a competent priesthood.

Religious:

• Doctrinal Clarification:

  • The Council of Trent explicitly rejected every major Protestant position, forming a clear definition of Catholic doctrine.

• Sacramental System Reaffirmed:

  • All seven sacraments were affirmed, including a reaffirmation of transubstantiation and the concept of priesthood as a special estate.

• Devotional Practices Maintained:

  • Catholic practices including veneration of saints, images, relics, pilgrimages, confession, purgatory, and indulgences were affirmed and addressed.

• New Spirituality:

  • Instilled a mystical awe for the church, as represented by influential mystics like Teresa of Avila and practices endorsed through Ignatian theology.

Social:

• Religious Orders Proliferation:

  • New orders (e.g., Jesuits, Oratorians, Ursulines) emerged to actively engage in educational and philanthropic activities, promoting a social consciousness within the church.

• Women's Roles:

  • Although convents became more strictly controlled, orders like the Ursulines provided female communities, maintaining the religious presence of women even as clerical roles changed.

• Class and Catholic Reform:

  • Jesuits focused on the ruling classes while St. Vincent de Paul actively worked among the poor, reflecting diverse approaches within Catholicism.

Colonial Social Impact:

• Catholic Clergy:

  • Worked to protect Native Americans and mitigate the harsh treatments faced by enslaved Africans, which stood in stark contrast to the indifference observed among some Protestant clergy.

• Education and Literacy:

  • Latin remained the primary liturgical language, fostering a less educational emphasis on vernacular literacy compared to Protestant movements while ensuring elite education through Jesuit institutions.

Intellectual:

• Systematic Theology:

  • The Council of Trent established comprehensive theological frameworks addressing all significant controversies, presenting a narrative of intellectual clarity and precision contrasting with the diversity found in Protestant theology.

• Jesuit Intellectual Training:

  • Jesuits adhered to rigorous admission requirements, mystical practices, and structured spiritual exercises to prepare members for theological debates and intellectual engagement.

• Censorship and Control:

  • Controlled literature through the Papal Index of Prohibited Books, maintaining an ideological environment where authoritative interpretations were limited to Church leadership.

Rejection of Private Judgment:

• Interpretation Control:

  • Individuals were not permitted to interpret scripture in contrast to church authorities, contrasting the Protestant emphasis on individual conscience; the church hierarchy maintained a monopoly on theological interpretations.

Art and Culture:

• Visual Richness:

  • The Catholic Church opposed Protestant iconoclasm, enhancing art within churches to reflect divine beauty and moral teachings, setting the stage for future Baroque styles.

• Liturgical Continuity:

  • Latin was maintained as the liturgical language until the 1960s, preserving traditional ceremonies and appealing to sensory devotion through ornate rituals.

• Cultural Productions:

  • Engaged in notable literary and artistic outputs, including mystical literature by Teresa of Avila and significant patronage of arts.

Key Terms:

Catholic Reformation:

• The Catholic movement following the Protestant Reformation that sought internal reform and counteracted Protestantism.

Council of Trent:

• A critical Catholic council from 1545 to 1563 that defined doctrine and reformed church abuses; it fundamentally shaped Catholicism until the 1960s.

Counter-Reformation:

• The Protestant term emphasizing the Catholic response focusing on opposition to Protestantism.

Catholic Reformation:

• Catholic term focusing on genuine internal reform versus reaction against Protestantism.

Conciliar Movement:

• Earlier attempt to position church councils above the pope, defeated around 1450; its revival was threatened by Trent.

Episcopal Movement:

• A group represented at Trent that believed in the collective authority of bishops over the pope, which was ultimately defeated by papal authority.

Vulgate:

• St. Jerome's fourth-century Latin Bible, declared authoritative at Trent.

Private Judgment:

• The individual belief that one's interpretation of scripture is more valid than institutional interpretations, denied at Trent.

Holy Office:

• A permanent committee of cardinals managing the Roman Inquisition from 1542.

Roman/Papal Inquisition:

• Established in 1542; less severe than the Spanish counterpart and quickly lost effectiveness outside of Italy.

Spanish Inquisition:

• Instituted around 1480 to combat Jewish and Muslim influences, especially against Protestantism, noted for its severity.

Papal Index:

• A list of books Catholics were forbidden to read without permission, in effect until the 1960s, reflecting the Church's commitment to controlling narratives.