1754-1800

The first and last topics of each unit are just reviews so there are no note for them. These notes are based on Heimler History videos with some additions.

3.2 - French and Indian War

Causes of the War

• Territorial disputes in the Ohio River Valley Between the French and the British

• The British American colonists were steadily encroaching on land claimed by the French

• George Washington, a young Virginian officer, was sent to warn the French of encroachment, but was rebuffed

• The French took control of a British post in Pennsylvania, Fort Duquesne, which led to a surprise attack by Washington and his American Indian allies

The Albany Congress (1754)

• A congress where delegates from several British colonies met to discuss a more organized colonial response to:

  • Frontier defense

  • Trade

  • Westward expansion

• The Iroquois Confederacy was invited to join, but their involvement was token

• Benjamin Franklin introduced the Albany Plan of Union, which proposed a council of representatives to decide on matters of frontier defense, trade, and westward expansion

The War

• The French initially had the upper hand, but the British eventually gained control

• The British implemented policies that were unpopular with their American colonists, including:

  • Forced impressment of American men to join the Royal Navy

  • Quartering troops in colonial homes

• These policies contributed to lasting colonial resentment

The Treaty of Paris (1763)

• Ended the French and Indian War

• Had significant consequences for the American colonists, including:

  • Spain ceded Florida to the British

  • The French were ousted from the North American continent, and the Spanish were given control of former French lands west of the Mississippi River

  • All land east of the Mississippi River, including the Ohio River Valley, was granted to the British

Effects of the War

Consequences for the American Colonists

• Westward migration intensified conflicts with Native Americans

• The British Parliament established the Proclamation Line of 1763, which forbade colonists from migrating west across the Appalachian mountains

• The colonists defied this proclamation, leading to increased tensions with the British

Financial Consequences

• British National debt doubled

• Cost of running the colonies increased

• As a result, Britain raised taxes on American colonies

3.3 - Reasons for American Anger

Taxation without Representation

• The British government, led by Prime Minister George Grenville, sought to impose taxes on the American colonies to pay for the expenses of the French and Indian War.

• This led to a series of events that ultimately contributed to the American Revolution.

Salutary Neglect

• During the colonial period, the British government practiced salutary neglect

• Allowed the colonies to govern themselves with minimal interference from Britain.

• This led to a sense of autonomy and independence among the colonists.

British Response to Salutary Neglect

• Stricter enforcement of current laws: including the Navigation Acts, which restricted trade and commerce.

• Extension of wartime provisions into peacetime: with the Quartering Act of 1765, which required colonists to provide housing and food for British soldiers.

• Imposition of new taxes: such as the Sugar Act, Stamp Act, and Currency Act, which restricted the colonies' ability to print their own paper currency.

Colonists' Response to British Impositions

• The colonists felt suffocated by the British government's actions and responded with

  • Protests: led by organized groups such as the Sons of Liberty, Daughters of Liberty, and Vox Populi.

  • Petitions: to the British Parliament, arguing that taxation without representation was tyranny.

  • Boycotts: of British goods, particularly after the passage of the Townshend Acts.

Key Events and Acts

• French and Indian War - Expensive war fought between Britain and France, leading to a significant debt.

• Quartering Act - Required colonists to provide housing and food for British soldiers.

• Sugar Act - Imposed taxes on coffee, wine, and other luxury items.

• Stamp Act - Imposed taxes on paper items, such as newspapers, playing cards, and legal contracts.

• Currency Act - Prohibited colonial assemblies from printing their own paper currency.

• Stamp Act Congress - A gathering of 27 delegates from nine colonies to petition the British Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act.

• Declaratory Act - Affirmed the British Parliament's right to pass laws in the colonies.

• Townshend Acts - Imposed taxes on imported goods such as paper, tea, and glass.

• Boston Massacre - British soldiers fired into a crowd of colonists, killing four and wounding others

Key Concepts

• Virtual representation: the British government's argument that the members of Parliament represented the interests of all British classes, including the American colonists.

• No taxation without representation: the colonists' argument that they had no say in the British Parliament and therefore should not be taxed.

3.4 - Philosophical Foundations of the American Revolution

From Loyal Subjects to Revolutionaries

• Recall that in the Stamp Act Congress (1765), colonial delegates petitioned the British Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act as loyal subjects to the country and crown.

• They wanted to be treated as British citizens.

• Even after the Continental Congress (1774), delegates from every colony deliberated about resisting further violations of their liberty, but revolution wasn't their answer.

• They hoped for reconciliation with Britain.

The Enlightenment Influence

• The Enlightenment thinkers inspired the colonists to yearn for liberty and resist any encroachment upon it.

• John Locke

  • Argued that a legitimate government can only exist by the consent of the governed.

  • Introduced the concept of natural rights, which are endowed by the Creator and cannot be taken away by the government.

  • Advocated for self-rule through elected representatives, rejecting hereditary privilege or inherited offices.

• Jean-Jacques Rousseau

• Coined the concept of the social contract, where the people agree to give up some power to a government in exchange for the protection of their natural rights.

• Argued that laws passed without the people's consent are null and void.

Baron de Montesquieu

• Advocated for a republican form of government to preserve a people's liberty.

• Introduced the concept of separation of powers into three branches: executive, legislative, and judicial.

• Executive Branch

  • Enforces and carries out laws

• Legislative Branch

  • Makes laws

• Judicial Branch

  • Interprets laws

The Turning Point: Thomas Paine's Common Sense

• In 1776, Thomas Paine published Common Sense, a pamphlet that used everyday language to argue for independence from Britain.

• It was shot through with Enlightenment ideas and became a bestseller.

• Spurred many to support the revolution

The Declaration of Independence

• The Declaration of Independence was composed by Thomas Jefferson

• Influenced by Enlightenment ideas

  • Natural rights

  • The social contract.

• Adopted on July 4, 1776, and marked the beginning of the American Revolution.

3.5 - The American Revolution

Opposition from Within and Without

• Not all colonists supported the patriot cause, with some wanting to remain neutral or loyal to the British crown.

• The loyalists, who opposed independence, presented a significant obstacle to overcome.

The War Begins

• The Continental Congress appointed George Washington as the general of the Continental Army.

• The war was not a glorious conflict, but rather a rough and tumultuous one.

• The Continental Army faced numerous challenges, including:

  • Poorly armed and trained soldiers

  • Coercion into service by local authorities

  • Regional differences, with soldiers more loyal to their local region than the national cause

The British Advantage

• The British General William Howe landed in New York with 10,000 experienced and well-trained troops.

• The British were also supported by around 60,000 American Loyalists.

The Turning Point

• Washington realized that the only way to win was to wage a war of attrition, which aimed to wear down the British over time.

• The tide of the war began to turn when Washington led his troops across the Delaware River on Christmas Eve 1776 and attacked a group of Hessian soldiers, winning the battle.

The Battle of Saratoga

• The Battle of Saratoga in September 1777 was a significant turning point in the war.

• The American victory at Saratoga persuaded France to ally with the Americans, which marked a crucial shift in the balance of power.

• The French alliance was motivated by a desire to weaken Britain, rather than a strong support for the revolutionary cause.

The Final Battle and Treaty

• Battle of Yorktown

  • The final battle of the war, where Washington and the Continental Army, supported by French forces, dealt the British a decisive blow.

• Paris Peace Treaty

  • The treaty was signed by all parties, recognizing America as an independent nation with its western boundary established at the Mississippi River.

The Role of Black Americans in the War

• Around 5,000 black men fought for the patriot cause

• They were mostly free blacks from the North

• Some were liberated from the South and fought alongside white soldiers.

The Effects of the War

• The war had massive economic consequences, as the colonists went to war with their most significant trading partner.

• The American Revolution ultimately led to the recognition of America as an independent nation.

3.6 - The Impacts of The Revolution

The American Revolution's Impact on American Society

• The American Revolution had a profound impact on American society, particularly in the areas of slavery, democracy, and women's rights.

Slavery

• The Revolution's emphasis on liberty and equality led to increased criticism of slavery

• Many northern states abolished slavery, and the Continental Congress banned the importation of enslaved laborers

• However, this progress was short-lived, as southern plantation owners soon saw the economic benefits of slavery and the movement lost momentum

Democracy

• The Revolution led to greater democratic influence in state and national governments

• State legislatures worked to universalize suffrage, granting the right to vote without respect to title or nobility

• The practice of granting titles of nobility or aristocracy was abolished

Women's Rights

• Women played a crucial role in the war effort, taking on new responsibilities and contributing to voluntary associations

• The idea of Republican Motherhood emerged, which emphasized the importance of women in raising sons who were well-versed in republican principles

• While this idea may seem limited by today's standards, it represented a significant expansion of women's roles and recognition of their importance in the new nation

The American Revolution's Impact

• The American Revolution also had a profound impact on global society

• It inspired other revolutionary movements

The French Revolution

• The French Revolution began in 1789, sparked by economic woes and inspired by the American Revolution's ideals of liberty and equality

• The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizenwas produced, which was deeply influenced by the American Declaration of Independence and included protections of basic human rights

• The French Revolution led to the establishment of a limited monarchy and the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte

The Haitian Revolution

• The Haitian Revolution began in 1791, as enslaved people in Haiti rose up against their French colonizers

• Led by Toussaint L'Ouverture, the Haitians achieved a surprising victory against the French and established an independent government

• This was the first successful revolution of enslaved people and the first black-led independent nation in the Western Hemisphere

Latin American Revolutions

• The American Revolution's ideals of liberty and equality also inspired revolutions in Latin America, particularly against Spanish and Portuguese colonizers

• Countries such as Mexico, Peru, Venezuela, and Chile eventually overthrew their colonizers and established independent governments

3.7 - The Articles of Confederation

The Articles of Confederation

• The Articles of Confederation was the first constitution of the United States

• It was ratified in 1781

• It was created after the Continental Congress declared independence from Britain in 1776, and the need for a governing document arose.

Influences on the Articles of Confederation

• The Articles of Confederation were influenced by existing state constitutions, which focused power on the legislative branch.

• During the Revolution, state governments had formed their own constitutional governments, with power in the legislative branch, which consisted of representatives of the people. This meant that the power of government was answerable to the people.

Structure of the Articles of Confederation

• The Articles of Confederation did not provide for an executive (president) or a national supreme court.

• All power was in the legislative branch, with each state having one vote.

• Each state also had veto power over any changes to the Articles.

Problems with the Articles of Confederation

• Americans were pushing west for settlement, encountering Native American who resisted them

• Americans were squatting on land without permission.

• There was no way for the government to deal with it

The Northwest Ordinance of 1787

• The federal government passed the Northwest Ordinance of 1787

  • Abolished slavery in the Northwest Territory

  • Provided an orderly means for unorganized territories to apply for statehood

  • Promoted public education

  • Protected private property

Shays's Rebellion

• Shays's Rebellion was a key event that highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation.

  • Led by Daniel Shays, an angry farmer who had fallen into debt after fighting in the Revolutionary War.

  • When the Massachusetts government failed to provide relief, Shays and his militia attempted to arm themselves, but were stopped by the Massachusetts militia.

• The rebellion showed the weakness of the Articles, as there was no president or federal army to respond to the crisis.

• Showed there was a need for a new constitution to replace the Articles

3.8 - Creating The Constitutional

The Constitutional Convention

• The Constitutional Convention was a gathering of 55 delegates from the states in 1787 to address the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation. Instead, they decided to create a new Constitution that would give the federal government more power.

The Debate over Representation

The main question was how to represent the voices of the people in the new federal government. There were two main proposals:

• The Virginia Plan: a strong centralized state with a bicameral legislature, where states would have representatives based on population. This plan favored the big states.

• The New Jersey Plan: a unicameral legislature where every state had equal representatives. This plan favored the small states.

• The Great Compromise ended this

  • created a bicameral legislature

  • House of Representatives was based on population

  • Senate had each state had equal votes

The Debate over Slavery and Representation

• The main question was whether the enslaved population of the South would be counted for purposes of representation in the House of Representatives.

  • The Southern States: Yes, they should be counted to increase their power and influence.

  • The Northern States: No, they shouldn't be counted because they are not considered human and therefore not citizens.

• The Three-Fifths Compromise: 3/5 of the enslaved population could be added to the population for purposes of representation.

• The Ban on Slavery: The convention agreed to delay the ban on slavery in the Northwest Territory until 1808

The Outcomes of the Debates

• Voting for National Representatives: Members of the House of Representatives would be voted in directly by the people for 2-year terms. Members of the Senate would be elected by state legislatures for 6-year terms.

• The Election of the President: The president would be elected by the states through the electoral college, where each state chooses a certain number of electors based on their population.

The Ratification of the Constitution

• To become the governing document, 9 out of 13 states had to agree on the Constitution.

• The Federalists

  • Supported the Constitution and believed it was necessary for a strong central government.

  • Mostly urban and commercial type folks.

• The Anti-Federalists

  • Opposed the Constitution

  • Believed it invested too much power in the central government at the expense of the states.

  • Wanted a Bill of Rights to protect individual liberties.

• The Federalists won the battle, partly through persuasion and partly by conceding to add the Bill of Rights after ratification.

3.9 - The Constitution

Federalism

Federalism is often misinterpreted by students because it sounds similar to the federal government. Federalism does not mean the federal government has more power than the states.

Federalism is the sharing of power between state and national governments.

In the Constitution, federalism is achieved through a system of shared power between the national government and the state governments.

Supremacy Clause and Enumerated Powers

Article VI of the Constitution, known as the Supremacy Clause, states that national law trumps state law whenever they contradict.

The Enumerated Powers of Congress are listed in Article I, Section 8, and include powers such as declaring war.

Example: If the federal government declares war on Canada, and a state disagrees, the federal government's power takes precedence.

Tenth Amendment and Reserved Powers

The Tenth Amendment states that "The powers not delegated to the United States... are reserved to the states."

This means that powers not listed in Article I, Section 8, are reserved for the state governments, such as defining legal relationships like marriage or divorce.

Separation of Powers among the Three Branches

The Constitution establishes three branches of government, each with its own responsibilities and powers

Legislative - Makes laws

Executive - Carries out and enforces laws

Judicial - Interprets laws to ensure they align with the Constitution

Checks and Balances

The framers of the Constitution set up a system of checks and balances to prevent any one branch from having too much power. For example:

The legislative branch proposes laws, but the executive branch must approve and sign them.

The executive branch has the power of veto, but Congress can override it with a two-thirds majority vote.

The Constitution's provision for both federalism and the separation of powers is based on the understanding that humans will abuse power if given the opportunity. By distributing power across multiple entities, the framers aimed to protect the American people from tyranny

3.10 - Washington's Presidency

Establishment of Executive Departments

• George Washington established executive departments to bring order to his administration.

  • Treasury Department

  • War Department

  • State Department

  • Justice Department

• Each department was headed by a secretary

• These secretaries made up Washington's cabinet and advised him on issues related to their departments. This precedent has continued to this day.

Alexander Hamilton and the National Bank

• Alexander Hamilton, Washington's secretary of the treasury, proposed the establishment of a National Bank.

• Benefits of a National Bank

  • Unify the states

  • Improve the credit of the United States

• Hamilton proposed to improve U.S. credit by absorbing each state's debts from the Revolutionary War into a national debt

• This would enable the U.S. to borrow money from other nations and increase the dependence of states upon the federal government.

The "Necessary and Proper" Clause

• The "necessary and proper" clause gave the federal government power to do things not directly stated in the constitution

• Also known as the elastic clause

• It allowed for the creation of a national bank.

Foreign Policy and the French Revolution

• During Washington's presidency, the French Revolution broke out

• Debates about if the U.S. should aid the French in their wars with other European nations, especially Britain, arose.

• Hamilton argued no.

• Jefferson argued yes.

• Washington took the line that the U.S. was too fledgling a nation to get involved in a European war and issued the Proclamation of Neutrality in 1793.

The Jay Treaty and Pinckney Treaty

• To rectify issues with the British, Washington sent Chief Justice John Jay to negotiate with the British

• The result was in Jay's Treaty.

• Spain and the US created the Pinckney Treaty

  • Allowed Americans to use the port at New Orleans for trade

  • Established the southern border of the United States.

Domestic Issues

The Whiskey Rebellion

• In 1794, Hamilton persuaded Congress to pass a bill to tax whiskey

• Western farmers attacked federal tax collectors

• Washington responded by sending in the U.S. Army, putting down the rebellion and proving that the new Constitution was effective.

Land Disputes with American Indians

• Americans moved west which led to conflicts with Native American

• The Battle of Fallen Timbers resulted in the Native surrender of all lands in the Ohio Valley.

The Emergence of the Two-Party System

• The issues of the National Bank, France, and the Whiskey Rebellion fired up political rivalries

• The two-party system emerged

  • Federalists

    • Alexander Hamilton

    • Strong central government, urban and elite interests

  • Democratic Republicans

    • Thomas Jefferson and James Madison

    • States' rights, rural and agricultural interests

Washington's Farewell Address and John Adams' Presidency

• After two terms, Washington did not seek re-election and gave a farewell address

  • Discussed the dangers of factions and political parties.

• The next President was John Adams, who faced challenges such as the XYZ Affair, where French diplomats demanded a bribe from American negotiators. In response, Adams encouraged Congress to pass the Alien and Sedition Acts.

  • The Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions were drafted in response to this, which claims states have the right to nullify a federal law they consider unconstitutional

3.11 - American Identity in the Early Republic

Republican Motherhood

• Republican Motherhood was the idea that wives and mothers played a crucial role in establishing a strong America by raising virtuous sons educated in the principles of liberty.

• This led to a push for women's education, with the goal of enabling mothers to educate their sons.

• In 1789, Massachusetts instituted elementary education for all children, and academies for girls multiplied.

• Judith Sargent Murray: Advocated for an expanded role for women, arguing that they should be able to attain the necessities of life without the help and patronage of a man.

Limitations of Republican Motherhood

The expansion of education and roles for women did not extend to:

• Black women, who were either enslaved or limited to work as household servants.

• American Indian women, whose influence diminished as men's roles as warriors and diplomats expanded.

Art, Literature, and Architecture

• Art

  • Charles Willson Peale: Famous for his portrait of George Washington.

  • Samuel Jennings: Broke norms by including women and black people in his paintings of American culture, emphasizing rationality and education.

  • John Trumbull: Depicted important historical events in a romanticized way, provoking nationalistic fervor in his audience.

• Literature

• Benjamin Franklin's Poor Richard's Almanack: A widely read annual handbook filled with aphorisms like "a penny saved is a penny earned", shaping American identity as industrious and hardworking.

• Artitecture

  • Classical Revival style: Borrowed from Europe, characterized by formal brick and stone structures, seen in Thomas Jefferson's Monticello