Understanding Culture and Society (Chapter 3 Textbook)
What is Culture?
Culture encompasses practically all of human civilization and touches almost every aspect of social life.
In the broadest sense, culture is the entire way of life of a group of people, including language, gestures, dress, beauty standards, customs, rituals, tools and artifacts, music, childrearing practices, and even how customers should line up in a store.
Culture forms basic beliefs and assumptions about the world and guides what is right and wrong, good and bad.
Culture is learned, not innate. It is shared, handed down from generation to generation, and transmitted across groups or individuals.
Culture is often taken for granted or seen as second nature, yet it is learned slowly and incrementally.
Culture guides how we make sense of the world and informs our decisions about what to do and how to do it.
Culture varies across groups, including nations, states, ethnic or religious groups, professions, subcultures, sports fans, etc.
Key takeaway: culture is a lens through which we view reality, shaping perception and action.
How Culture Has Been Studied
Theologians and philosophers debate morals and values in ideal cultures.
Art, literature, and film scholars study culture through expressive works.
Cultural anthropologists study societies abroad via empirical fieldwork; archaeologists study past cultures through artifacts.
Sociologists often focus on cultures closer to home and may engage in studying the unusual or deviant to understand culture broadly.
The sociology of everyday life emphasizes studying mundane practices to understand culture in all its permutations.
A caution: observers may engage in the process of ‘othering’ when studying cultures unfamiliar to them.
Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism
Ethnocentrism: using one’s own culture as a measuring stick to judge others; other cultures appear abnormal or inferior.
Ethnocentrism can foster pride but also prejudice and hostility.
Cultural relativism: viewing each culture on its own terms, without judging it as better or worse than another.
Practicing cultural relativism helps suspend ethnocentrism and enables clearer understanding of other values, beliefs, norms, and practices.
Cultural relativism is particularly important in an increasingly diverse society.
A classic illustration: Horace Minor’s Body Ritual Among the Nasirima (1956) reveals how easy it is to misread one’s own culture as exotic when observed from the outside; Nasirema (American backward) is a cautionary tale about seeing the familiar as strange.
Material vs Nonmaterial Culture
Material culture: physical objects with social meaning (artifacts, tools, clothing, buildings, toys, furniture, etc.).
Examples: designer labels on bags, logos on T-shirts, architecture, monuments, transportation, and consumer goods.
Studying material culture can be like archaeology of the present (e.g., Santa Barbara’s Mediterranean architectural style and preservation laws).
Nonmaterial culture: ideas, beliefs, values, norms, and behaviors; the intangible side of culture.
Core components: language, signs and symbols, gestures, social norms, and values.
Language is a central, universal, yet culturally specific system of communication; it shapes thought and perception to varying degrees.
Signs and symbols: convey information; some are universal, others context-specific. Interpreting signs often requires knowledge of the cultural context.
Nonverbal communication (gestures, body language, emojis): interpretable but culturally specific; meanings can diverge across cultures (e.g., thumbs-up varies by region).
Language and thought: Sapir–Whorf hypothesis (linguistic relativity) suggests that language structures thought and perception.
Formal statement: ext{Sapir--Whorf hypothesis: language shapes thought and guides perception.}
Debates persist about the strength of this influence, but cross-cultural differences in perception (e.g., time, color, space) are well-documented.
Sapir–Whorf and Language Influence on Perception
Edward Sapir and Benjamin Lee Whorf studied language’s impact on thought.
Example discussed: Hopi language and time perception (claims about past/puture distinctions).
Later scholarship moderated initial strong claims; evidence supports partial influence of language on perception, with universal cognitive capabilities.
In the U.S., multilingual reality; over 44,000,000 foreign-born residents speaking many languages; perceptual realities differ across linguistic backgrounds.
Meanings of Language in Everyday Life: The “Mean Girls” Metaphor
The cafeteria as a social map illustrates classification schemes (jocks, nerds, goths, populars, etc.).
Language and labels shape how we identify people and communities.
Sapir–Whorf idea applied to everyday life: language categories influence perception and interaction.
Religion as a Social Institution
Religion is a major social institution that provides morals, ethics, and social order.
Values and norms are often tied to dominant culture and may protect powerful groups’ interests; sanctions against violators may be unevenly applied.
Religion contributes to social control and can influence change, with leaders sometimes driving social transformation.
Core ideas: meaning is created and maintained through ongoing social interaction; religion comprises beliefs and rituals among followers.
Values, Norms, and Sanctions
Values: shared beliefs about what is worthwhile, desirable, or good (e.g., equality, democracy).
Norms: rules or guidelines for behavior; can be formal (laws) or informal (unwritten expectations).
Folkways: ordinary conventions; violations are odd but not dangerous (e.g., dress codes, etiquette).
Mores: norms with greater moral significance; violations can bring strong sanctions (e.g., theft, rape, murder).
Taboos: the strongest norms; violations evoke deep disgust or horror.
Sanctions: rewards for conformity and punishments for violations; can be formal (laws) or informal (social approval or disapproval).
From a functionalist perspective, sanctions help maintain social order and cohesion.
Norms are context-specific; they can be formalized or informal and can vary by culture, time, and situation.
Culture on Campus: Institutional Values and Student Life
Universities have their own cultures, shaping daily life, including dorm policies, health services, academic and athletic rules, and social norms.
Examples of variation among U.S. and religiously affiliated institutions:
Gonzaga University (Spokane): offers limited contraception benefits; STI testing and treatment available.
Georgetown University: can prescribe contraception if medically indicated but not for contraception itself.
Fordham and Boston College: pushback on contraception-related policies post-Affordable Care Act.
Brigham Young University (BYU) and Texas Christian University (TCU): examples of religious universities with different contraception policies.
Liberty University and Eastern Nazarene College: report limited or no birth control services.
School policies can influence dorm assignments, academic/athletic activities, and health care access; personal life can be regulated by institutional values.
Institutional values can conflict with student culture, creating tensions and possible control over student life.
Folkways, Mores, Taboos, and Sanctions in Everyday Life
Folkways: everyday conventions; not strictly enforced; examples include attire and etiquette; violations are socially odd but not dangerous.
Mores: core values; violations provoke strong sanctions; often formalized in laws or policies.
Taboos: most powerful norms; violations evoke strong disgust; culturally entrenched.
Sanctions: mechanisms to enforce norms; can be positive (praise) or negative (fines, incarceration).
Norms are context- and time-specific; examples include Mardi Gras and spring break as “moral holidays” where mild norm violations may be tolerated.
Sanctions, Authority, and Social Control
Sanctions enforce norms and contribute to social cohesion.
Various forms of authority exist (government, police, schools, employers, parents) to enforce norms.
Violations trigger sanctions; compliance is reinforced by the threat or reality of punishment.
COVID-19 and the Pandemic Norms
COVID-19 dramatically reshaped material and nonmaterial culture: widespread adoption of face masks, gloves, sanitizer, etc.
Nonmaterial norms: stay-at-home orders, social distancing, mask-wearing, reduced public transport use, new rules for parks, stores, and pharmacies.
Norms and values diverged by political ideology, highlighting tensions between individualism and collective responsibility.
Pew Research Center (2020): 29% of conservatives vs 63% of liberals believed people should always wear masks in public.
The pandemic illustrates how norms can be created rapidly, enforced with sanctions, and contested across political and cultural lines.
Data workshop prompt: identify and analyze a new pandemic norm, including its formal/informal status, origin, scope, responses, sanctions, and identity effects.
The Processes of Cultural Change
Technological change: material culture drives cultural change; technology extends from simple tools to complex digital systems.
The digital age: mass media and information technologies (TV, Internet, smartphones, cloud computing, AI) reshape culture.
Cultural diffusion: sharing of cultural elements across groups; can lead to adoption and adaptation.
Cultural diffusion examples:
McDonald’s in various cultures; Western fast food affecting local diets.
Japan’s fast-food-style diet and government responses (waist measurement laws for adults 45–74 since 2008).
Obesity and health trends in sub-Saharan Africa with Western fast food influx (KFC, Pizza Hut in Ghana).
Cultural imperialism: Western media and products spreading Western values; criticisms that media exports export values rather than just entertainment.
Cultural leveling: increasing similarity of cultures due to diffusion; globalization and the spread of Western norms can erode local diversity.
Global perspectives: Otaku culture (Japanese anime/manga fandom) spreading globally; East-to-West diffusion in some cases; South Korea’s Hallyu (Korean Wave) as a major exporter of culture (K-pop, films, TV, cosmetics).
The role of media and technology: capable of both connecting people and enabling radicalization or cultural domination; debates about responsibility of platforms and state regulation.
Cultural Diffusion, Imperialism, and Globalization
Cultural diffusion: the spread of material and nonmaterial culture through contact.
Cultural imperialism: imposition of one culture’s beliefs and practices on another via media and consumer products, rather than military force.
Cultural leveling: distinct cultures becoming more similar; globalization can homogenize practices and tastes.
Examples of globalization’s effects:
American TV shows and Western products circulating worldwide influence norms and values in various countries.
Iran and other regimes censor non-Islamic media; hidden access to Western programming persists via satellite.
Otaku culture demonstrates transnational diffusion where East-to-West transfer occurs through global online networks.
South Korea’s global cultural exports (K-pop, cinema, fashion) illustrate successful cultural diffusion through a new form of soft power.
Key terms in this area: cultural diffusion, cultural imperialism, cultural leveling, globalization, and Hallyu (the Korean Wave).
Subcultures and Countercultures
Subculture: a group within a larger culture that has distinctive values, norms, and lifestyle but harmonizes within the larger culture.
Examples: Korean Americans, senior citizens, firefighters, vegans, snowboarders, sports fans, hobbyists, etc.
Counterculture: a group whose norms and values oppose or resist the mainstream culture.
Historical examples: 1960s hippies, anti-war protesters, feminists, etc.
Modern examples include various activist or radical groups that challenge dominant norms.
Online radicalization and recruitment: white nationalist and extremist groups use online platforms to recruit and organize; examples include Charlottesville 2017 and the violence surrounding January 6, 2021.
Anonymous: a cyber-activist/countercultural group opposing censorship; uses online methods to disrupt and expose perceived wrongs; sometimes aligns with broader social causes (e.g., Black Lives Matter).
Culture wars: clashes over values and morality, often amplifying political divides (abortion, book bans, education content, LGBTQ rights, gun policy, etc.).
Pop culture as a site of culture wars: celebrities and media figures challenge and provoke debates about gender norms and social expectations (e.g., Harry Styles on Vogue cover, Bad Bunny’s gender nonconformity).
Examples of ongoing conflicts include debates over book bans in schools and libraries (e.g., Maya Kobabe’s Gender Queer; The Hate U Give; To Kill a Mockingbird; 1984).
Culture Wars and Public Discourse
Culture wars are ongoing debates over values and morality, often depicted in media, politics, and education.
Contemporary battlegrounds include abortion rights, sex education, and curriculum content in K–12 schools.
Book bans surged in 2021–2022: Penn America reported 2,532 bans across 5,000+ schools, affecting about 4,000,000 students; 1,648 unique titles targeted.
Pop culture and political debates: attention to gender norms, LGBTQ rights, immigration, and other social issues; examples include public reactions to mainstream media portrayals and political controversies.
Ideal vs Real Culture
Ideal culture: norms and values that a society professes to uphold.
Real culture: actual patterns of behavior and practices, which may diverge from stated ideals.
The United States often exhibits a gap between its stated equality and the persistent inequalities experienced by many groups (slavery, discrimination, and ongoing struggles for civil rights).
This distinction helps analyze social change and legitimacy of cultural claims.
Data Workshop and Data-Driven Analysis of Culture
The chapter includes a data workshop component: analyzing new pandemic norms using public statements, laws, organizational policies, and news sources.
Steps involve identifying the norm, its formal/informal status, the source, the scope (who it applied to), settings, responses, sanctions, and identity effects.
The exercise reinforces skills in empirical observation and evidence-based interpretation of cultural change.
Everyday Life and Field Research: Ethnography and Participant Observation
Encourages conducting fieldwork within a subculture to understand material and nonmaterial culture.
Steps outline choosing a subculture, observing in a natural setting, and identifying cultural components (material objects, language, signs, values, norms, and social expectations).
Questions to guide analysis include:
What are the key material culture items and their meanings?
What language and signs are used? What is the role of written materials?
What are the group’s key values and norms? What are their folkways, mores, and taboos?
What emotions, familiarity, or surprise arose from observations? How did cultural relativism inform your view?
Deliverables: field notes and a 3–4 page ethnography with attachments.
Key Takeaways and Connections
Culture is both a shared, learned system of meaning and a dynamic set of practices that changes over time.
Ethnocentrism can obscure understanding; cultural relativism supports clearer cross-cultural analysis.
Material and nonmaterial culture together shape daily life, communication, and social organization.
Language is a powerful mediator of thought and perception; signs, gestures, and emojis illustrate nonverbal communication and cultural variation.
Norms structure behavior from everyday etiquette (folkways) to core moral beliefs (mores) and taboo subjects; sanctions enforce these norms.
Religion, values, and norms contribute to social order but can also be sites of cultural conflict and change.
Dominant culture exerts influence through hegemony, while subcultures and countercultures illustrate the diversity within society and potential tensions with the mainstream.
Culture change arises from technology, diffusion, imperialism, and leveling; globalization intensifies cross-cultural exchange and, at times, cultural homogenization.
The pandemic offers a contemporary lens to study how new norms emerge, spread, and are contested, revealing the complexity of cultural adaptation.
Critical reflection on culture involves analyzing both the ideals societies aim for and the realities of daily life, recognizing both progress and persistent inequalities.
Glossary (selected terms)
Material culture: objects created by a group that carry social meaning; e.g., tools, clothing, buildings.
Nonmaterial culture: ideas, beliefs, values, norms, and ways of behaving.
Signs: symbols that stand for or convey an idea.
Gestures: body movements with symbolic meaning.
Language: system of communication using signs, symbols, or sounds.
Sapir–Whorf hypothesis: language structures thought and perception; linguistic relativity.
Values: shared beliefs about what is worthwhile or desirable.
Norms: rules or guidelines for behavior; include formal (laws) and informal (customs).
Folkways: ordinary conventions;
Mores: norms with moral significance; violations carry strong sanctions.
Taboos: strongest norms; evoke disgust or horror when violated.
Sanctions: rewards or punishments for conformity or violation.
Dominant culture: the culture of the most powerful group in society; can exert cultural hegemony.
Subculture: a group within a larger culture with distinct values and norms.
Counterculture: a group opposing the dominant culture.
Cultural diffusion: spread of culture from one group to another.
Cultural imperialism: imposition of one culture’s beliefs via media and consumer products.
Cultural leveling: cultures becoming more similar due to diffusion.
Hegemony: dominance of the ideas of the powerful in society.
Multiculturalism: policy that honors diverse backgrounds within a larger society.
Otaku: devoted fans of manga, anime, or video games; global fandom.
Hallyu: the Korean Wave of cultural exports (K-pop, films, TV).
Meanings of “norms” in education and everyday life: norms guide behavior in campuses, including sexual health policies and student life.
Quick Reference: Numerical and Cultural Milestones Mentioned
US linguistic diversity: more than 44,000,000 foreign-born people speaking over 100 languages.
Book bans (2021–2022): 2,532 instances across 5,000+ schools affecting nearly 4,000,000 students; 1,648 unique titles targeted.
Terrorism and extremist organization data: 67% of plots/attacks in 2020 linked to white nationalist groups (as reported by US Senate Committee on Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs, 2022).
Charlottesville (2017) and January 6, 2021 Capitol riot as pivotal culture-war events.
Pop-culture globalization milestones: Gangnam Style (PSY) reached 1,000,000,000 views on YouTube (2012); Parasite won Best Picture (2019); BTS popularity and global hits (Dynamite, 2020).
Pew Research (2020) on mask-wearing attitudes by political ideology.
2008 Japan waistline law for adults 45–74 as a public health measure related to diffusion of Western dietary patterns.