1. The Articles of Confederation

• Structure: The first constitution of the U.S., ratified in 1781, created a weak central government where power rested largely with the states.

• Congress Powers: Could declare war, make treaties, and coin money but lacked the power to tax or regulate commerce.

• Weaknesses: Congress had no authority to raise revenue, leading to financial instability. Each state retained its sovereignty and independence, and amendments required unanimous approval.

2. Land Ordinances

• Ordinance of 1784: Divided the Western territory into self-governing districts that could become states.

• Ordinance of 1785: Set up a system for surveying and selling western lands, dividing land into townships.

• Northwest Ordinance of 1787: Established policies for admitting new states and prohibited slavery in the Northwest Territory.

3. Shays’ Rebellion (1786-1787) (continued)

• Cause: Economic hardship, especially for farmers in Massachusetts, led to widespread debt and foreclosures. Farmers, led by Daniel Shays, rebelled against high taxes and aggressive debt collection.

• Outcome: The rebellion was suppressed, but it highlighted the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, particularly the inability of the government to maintain order and stability.

4. The Constitutional Convention (1787)

• Purpose: Delegates from 12 states (except Rhode Island) met in Philadelphia to address the problems of the Articles of Confederation. The goal shifted from revising the Articles to drafting a new Constitution.

• Key Debates:

• Representation: The Virginia Plan proposed a bicameral legislature with representation based on population, while the New Jersey Plan called for equal representation for each state. The Great Compromise created a bicameral Congress, with the House of Representatives based on population and the Senate providing equal representation for each state.

• Slavery: The Three-Fifths Compromise allowed three-fifths of the enslaved population to be counted for representation and taxation purposes.

• Federalism: A system of checks and balances was created, distributing power between the national government and the states.

5. The Ratification Debate

• Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists:

• Federalists: Supported the new Constitution, advocating for a stronger central government to provide order and stability. Key figures included Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay, who wrote the Federalist Papers to promote ratification.

• Anti-Federalists: Opposed the Constitution, fearing that it gave too much power to the national government at the expense of the states and individual liberties. They demanded a Bill of Rights to protect citizens.

• Ratification: The Constitution was ratified in 1788, after promises were made to add a Bill of Rights, which was adopted in 1791.

Chapter 8: Securing the Republic (1790-1815)

1. The Presidency of George Washington

• Washington’s Cabinet: Key figures included Thomas Jefferson (Secretary of State), Alexander Hamilton (Secretary of the Treasury), and Henry Knox (Secretary of War).

• Hamilton’s Financial Plan:

• National Bank: Hamilton proposed the creation of a national bank to stabilize the economy and provide loans to the government and businesses.

• Debt Assumption: The federal government assumed state debts from the Revolutionary War, consolidating national financial power.

• Tariffs and Taxes: Hamilton supported tariffs on imported goods to protect American industries and proposed excise taxes, like the whiskey tax, to raise revenue.

• Opposition: Thomas Jefferson and James Madison opposed Hamilton’s plan, believing it favored the wealthy and encroached on states’ rights. This conflict led to the formation of political parties—the Federalists, who supported Hamilton, and the Democratic-Republicans, led by Jefferson and Madison.

2. Foreign Affairs

• The French Revolution: Initially supported by many Americans, the revolution became controversial as it grew more radical. Federalists were concerned about the violence, while Democratic-Republicans sympathized with the revolutionary ideals.

• Proclamation of Neutrality (1793): Washington issued this proclamation to keep the U.S. neutral in the conflict between Britain and France.

• Jay’s Treaty (1794): Negotiated by John Jay, this treaty sought to settle tensions with Britain. While it prevented war, many Americans, especially Democratic-Republicans, saw it as too favorable to Britain.

• Pinckney’s Treaty (1795): Secured the right for Americans to navigate the Mississippi River and deposit goods at the port of New Orleans, resolving disputes with Spain.

3. The Rise of Political Parties

• Federalists: Supported a strong central government, a loose interpretation of the Constitution, and close ties with Britain. The party was popular in the Northeast among merchants and the wealthy.

• Democratic-Republicans: Advocated for states’ rights, a strict interpretation of the Constitution, and support for the French Revolution. They drew support from farmers and the South.

• The Whiskey Rebellion (1794): Western farmers protested against the excise tax on whiskey. Washington’s suppression of the rebellion demonstrated the strength of the new federal government.

4. The Presidency of John Adams

• Election of 1796: Adams, a Federalist, narrowly defeated Jefferson, who became Vice President.

• XYZ Affair (1797): Diplomatic incident with France, where French agents demanded bribes to negotiate. This led to an undeclared naval conflict between the U.S. and France, known as the Quasi-War.

• Alien and Sedition Acts (1798): Federalist laws that restricted immigration (Alien Acts) and limited criticism of the government (Sedition Act). These acts were highly controversial and viewed by Democratic-Republicans as violations of free speech.

• Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions: Drafted by Jefferson and Madison in response to the Alien and Sedition Acts, these resolutions argued that states could nullify federal laws they deemed unconstitutional.

5. The Election of 1800

• Revolution of 1800: Jefferson’s victory over Adams marked the first peaceful transfer of power between political parties in U.S. history. Jefferson’s election was seen as a triumph for democratic principles and limited government.

6. The Presidency of Thomas Jefferson

• Jefferson’s Policies: Reduced the size of the federal government, cut military spending, and repealed the whiskey tax. He aimed to reverse Federalist policies and promote an agrarian vision of America.

• Louisiana Purchase (1803): Jefferson purchased the vast Louisiana Territory from France for $15 million, doubling the size of the U.S. and securing control of the Mississippi River. This move, however, challenged his strict interpretation of the Constitution.

• Lewis and Clark Expedition: Sent by Jefferson to explore the newly acquired territory and find a route to the Pacific, they provided valuable information about the geography and native populations.

7. Foreign Conflicts and Embargo

• Impressment: British ships were seizing American sailors and forcing them into the British navy. This violation of American sovereignty fueled tensions between the two nations.

• Embargo Act (1807): In response to British and French interference with American shipping, Jefferson imposed an embargo, banning all foreign trade. The embargo devastated the U.S. economy, especially in port cities, and was highly unpopular.

8. The War of 1812

• Causes: Continued British impressment of American sailors, interference with U.S. shipping, and support for Native American resistance against American expansion led the U.S. to declare war on Britain.

- Invasion of Canada: Early U.S. attempts to invade British Canada failed due to poor military organization and lack of support from New England states.

- Naval Battles: Despite being outnumbered, the U.S. had several naval victories, including those of the USS Constitution ("Old Ironsides").

- British Offensive: In 1814, British forces captured and burned Washington, D.C., including the White House and Capitol. However, they were repelled in Baltimore, where the defense of Fort McHenry inspired the writing of the national anthem, “The Star-Spangled Banner.”

- Battle of New Orleans (1815): Led by General Andrew Jackson, the U.S. achieved a major victory against the British, though the battle took place after the war had officially ended.

• Treaty of Ghent (1814): The treaty ended the war without significant territorial changes. Both sides agreed to return to the status quo, and impressment was no longer a major issue after the defeat of Napoleon in Europe.

9. Consequences of the War of 1812

• Increased Nationalism: The war bolstered a sense of national pride, particularly after the victories at New Orleans and in naval battles. The war also confirmed American independence and reduced lingering British influence.

• Demise of the Federalist Party: Opposition to the war, especially from Federalists in New England, culminated in the Hartford Convention (1814), where some Federalists discussed secession. This led to the party’s discrediting and eventual collapse.

• Economic Impact: The war disrupted trade, leading to the growth of American manufacturing as the country became more self-sufficient.

• Native American Resistance: The war weakened Native American resistance to U.S. expansion. Figures like Tecumseh, who had allied with the British, were defeated, and Native American lands were increasingly encroached upon.

10. Aftermath and the “Era of Good Feelings”

• James Monroe’s Presidency (1817-1825): Monroe’s election ushered in the “Era of Good Feelings,” marked by a temporary decline in partisan conflict as the Federalists faded. Monroe promoted national unity, and his administration saw the further expansion of U.S. territory and influence.

• Western Expansion: The government encouraged westward migration and settlement, further displacing Native Americans.

• Economic Policy: Monroe’s presidency saw the creation of the Second Bank of the United States and protective tariffs aimed at fostering domestic industry.

These chapters cover the formation and stabilization of the U.S. government after the Revolutionary War, the internal struggles to define its structure, foreign relations, the emergence of political parties, and the implications of the War of 1812.