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Chapter 4: Verbal Elements of Communication

4.1 How words work

  • Learning outcomes
    • 1) Discover how words have different rules.
    • 2) Determine the level of abstraction.
    • 3) Comprehend the concept of meta messages.
  • Words are arbitrary symbols that stand for meanings, and meanings can depend on people and context.
    • Examples show how two people can interpret the same event differently due to perception (e.g., Kelly & James texting; James replies with a single letter in caps, signaling excitement, which Kelly interprets as anger).
    • Language helps us express wants, needs, and desires, build connections, and can also create distance.
  • Robin Lakoff’s insight on words and meaning
    • Robin Tomok Lakoff asks how something as air-like as spoken language can powerfully shape our world.
    • Meaning resides in people; words do not inherently represent reality.
  • The three rules that govern word meaning
    • 1) Semantic rules
    • Define dictionary meanings, but meaning shifts with context.
    • Examples:
      • The word "fly" by itself is vague; context clarifies meaning (e.g., "there's a fly on the wall" vs. travel plans: "I will fly to Dallas tomorrow" vs. slang: "That girl is so fly").
      • A teacher’s joke about a period leads to a misunderstanding when a student misreads the term as punctuation rather than a bodily process.
    • Importance: semantic rules prevent embarrassment and misunderstanding.
    • 2) Syntactic rules
    • Govern grammar, structure, and punctuation to convey ideas.
    • Examples:
      • Subtle changes can shift meaning: "Where are you?" vs. "Where you are?" signals different intent.
      • Punctuation matters: the placement of a comma can change meaning and comprehension (e.g., the famous cadence of "Let’s eat, Grandma" vs. "Let’s eat Grandma"; punctuation can literally save lives).
      • Cultural variation in syntax, as seen with characters like Yoda who follow different rules.
      • Figure 4.1 illustrates how a missing or misplaced comma changes interpretation.
    • 3) Pragmatic rules
    • Involve interpreting messages by considering context: words, delivery, relationship, goals.
    • Examples:
      • The phrase "I want to see you now" can convey different meanings depending on whether the speaker is a boss or a lover.
      • Humor and sarcasm rely on shared understanding; literal interpretation can misread intent.
      • Pragmatic rules are often culturally learned; e.g., "Netflix and chill" can imply a hookup in some contexts, but not in others.
      • Capitalization in text (ALL CAPS) signals anger or excitement; without caps, the same sentence can feel different.
  • Language and reality creation
    • Language helps create reality by labeling experiences and shaping perceptions.
    • Examples:
    • The concept of "success" differs across individuals and cultures (e.g., a luxury car vs. freedom to pursue passions).
    • "Intimacy" can mean different things to different people (love vs. deep psychological connection).
    • Language can influence attitudes and action; words chosen can affect how messages are received.
    • Practical examples from workplaces and media:
    • Disney World uses the term "cast members" instead of "workers" to imply a role and contribution.
    • Resume language (e.g., "culinary artist" vs. "cook") can shape perceptions of capability.
  • Words reflect attitudes
    • Positive vs. negative portrayals depend on sentiment toward the subject.
    • If someone is loved, descriptors tend to be positive (e.g., funny, mature, thrifty); if relations sour, they may be labeled as childish, old, cheap.
  • Level of abstraction
    • Language ranges from abstract to concrete.
    • Abstract terms can be ambiguous; concrete expressions aid clarity.
    • Example contrast:
    • Vague: "you are a jerk."
    • Concrete: "when you slammed that door in my face this morning, it really upset me, and I didn’t think that behavior was appropriate."
    • Abstraction ladder (Hayakawa, 1941)
    • The ladder moves from abstract to concrete:
      \text{Abstract information} \rightarrow \text{Research} \rightarrow \text{Academic fields} \rightarrow \text{Humanities and social sciences} \rightarrow \text{Communication studies} \rightarrow \text{Interpersonal communication}
    • As you move down, topics become more fine-tuned and concrete.
    • Everyday language tends to stay high in abstraction for efficiency, but lack of description can cause misunderstanding (e.g., generic thank-you vs. specific acknowledgment of help with math homework and solving a volume of spheres problem).
  • Abstraction and miscommunication
    • People often speak at high abstraction levels; detail helps avoid miscommunication.
  • Meta messages (metacommunication)
    • Meta messages = communication about communication.
    • Meta messages can be verbal or nonverbal, direct or indirect, and convey relationship cues (affection, appreciation, disgust, ridicule, scorn, contempt).
    • Mindfulness in speaking helps us recognize the meta messages we send and how others may interpret them.
  • Words and meanings: denotation vs. connotation; the triangle of meaning
    • Ogden and Richards’ triangle of meaning: word (symbol) connects to an idea (signified) and to the referent (the actual thing) via a mental map; misunderstandings arise when different people attach different meanings to the same word.
    • Denotative meaning: dictionary definition; generally shared understanding (e.g., car, phone).
    • Connotative meaning: subjective, culturally or personally influenced associations (emotions, attitudes).
    • Example: the word "dog" evokes different images and feelings for different people; the signifier (sound) points to a signified concept and a referent (the actual dog).
  • Key takeaways for 4.1
    • Words have denotative (dictionary) and connotative (attitudinal) meanings.
    • Misunderstandings often arise from abstraction and context.
    • Context, relationship, and intent shape how messages are interpreted.
    • Meta messages are an integral part of verbal communication and should be read alongside spoken content.
    • The choice of words can construct or distort reality; careful wording can influence perception and action.

4.2 Functions of language

  • Learning outcomes
    • 1) Distinguish the differences between instrumental and regulatory functions.
    • 2) Appreciate the interactional and imaginative functions of language.
    • 3) Examine the personal, ritual, and cultural aspects of language.
  • Overview: how children develop language functions and how language serves different purposes in life
    • Instrumental functions: language used to fulfill needs; helps meet basic goals (e.g., requesting food, drink).
    • Regulatory functions: language used to influence others’ behavior through requests, rules, or persuasion (e.g., public health campaigns like don’t drink and drive'' ordon’t text and drive'' as behavior controls).
    • Interactional functions: language used to maintain or develop relationships; expressing care, gratitude, politeness (e.g., saying "thank you", "please").
    • Imaginative functions: language used to create imaginative worlds; storytelling, play, and fantasy; used in games and entertainment to persuade or persuade through narrative.
    • Personal functions: language used to express identity, feelings, and personal choices; how one describes oneself in contexts like job interviews.
    • Heuristic functions: language used to explore, learn, and discover; asking questions to gain knowledge (e.g., "What is that tractor doing?" or "Why is that cat sleeping?").
    • Representational functions: language used to relay information or describe states without seeking explanation (e.g., "My cat is asleep"; "The kitchen light isn’t working").
    • Cultural functions: language as a window into culture; certain concepts exist in one language but not another (e.g., snow terms in Inuit languages vs. English).
  • Why language varies across cultures and contexts
    • Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: language shapes thought and worldview; linguistic determinism and linguistic relativity describe how language can influence perception.
    • Cultural concepts in language: words can encode a culture’s view on time, space, and social relations (e.g., Hopi concept of time; Inuit snow terminology differences).
    • The Hopi language and time: some scholars argue that Hopi lacks a grammatical category for past, present, or future (illustrative of how language can structure perception of time).
  • The role of language in understanding culture and perception
    • Language reflects cultural values, priorities, and social norms.
    • Naming, ritual language, and culturally specific terms convey shared meanings.
  • Heuristic and representational functions in practice
    • Heuristic: used to encourage exploration and learning (e.g., asking questions in lectures or describing a child’s behavior to gain insight).
    • Representational: used to deliver factual information without emotion or interpretation (e.g., stating a fact about a device’s status).
  • Cultural, personal, and ritual functions
    • Personal: contributes to identity formation and self-presentation.
    • Ritual: everyday phrases and routines (e.g., greetings like hello and goodbye) that structure social interaction.
    • Cultural: language encodes and transmits a culture’s worldview and practices across generations.
  • Key takeaways for 4.2
    • Language serves multiple, overlapping functions that help people meet needs, govern behavior, build and maintain relationships, imagine new worlds, and express identity.
    • Different functions often intertwine in real-life communication (e.g., a compliment can be both an interactional and personal function).
    • Cultural context shapes how language is used and understood; language both reflects and shapes cultural realities.

4.3 The impact of language

  • Learning outcomes
    • 1) Understand how naming and identity influence perceptions.
    • 2) Comprehend how language can impact affiliation with others.
    • 3) Identify the difference between sexist and racist language.
  • Naming and identity
    • Names influence perception and behavior; listeners form assumptions about gender, personality, and character based on a name.
    • Unusual names or novel spellings can cause emotional distress and social judgments.
    • Names evolve over time (e.g., Madison as a female name gained popularity after the 1980s filmSplash).
    • Names can be tied to socioeconomic status and social trends; Freakonomics found correlations between names and socioeconomic status.
    • Figure 4.5 (reference) lists popular baby names for girls and boys and nonbinary names.
  • Affiliation through language convergence and divergence
    • Convergence: aligning word choices and pronouns with another person can increase affinity and relationship duration (e.g., romantic partners with similar language use show greater connection).
    • Divergence: deliberately differing language can create distance or privacy within a group (or between cultures).
    • Shared speech patterns and jargon can strengthen group identity and closeness (e.g., couples, gangs, military units adopting similar utterances).
  • Sexism and racism in language
    • Bias: an attitude that is not objective, can be prejudicial, and may offend or demean others based on race, ethnicity, sexual orientation, age, disability, or illness.
    • Sexist language: words or phrases that unnecessarily differentiate between sexes or diminish one sex (e.g., using outdated terms like policemen, stewardess, waitress; replacing with police officers, flight attendants, servers).
    • Racism in language: language that conveys racial superiority or inferiority; connotations of color terms and historically loaded expressions (e.g., Black/White associated stereotypes in culture and media).
    • Contemporary controversy: phrases like "Chinese virus" have sparked debate about racial insensitivity and real-world violence against people of Asian descent.
  • Muted group theory
    • Muted group theory argues that dominant groups (often men) create language and systems of communication that marginalize other groups (often women).
    • The theory is described as feminist in nature; the term "feminist" itself reflects subversion within male-dominated language.
    • Figure 4.6 illustrates the basic concept: a blue circle (dominant group) has a perception of reality; a pink circle (muted group) has a different perception that may be overlooked or undervalued by the dominant group.
    • Real-world examples: socioeconomic status discussions, classroom dynamics, and gendered expectations show how language can privilege some perspectives over others.
  • Key takeaways for 4.3
    • Names shape perceptions and self-concept; language can influence social affiliation and relationship dynamics.
    • Convergence in language often signals affiliation and closeness, while divergence can signal distance or difference.
    • Sexist and racist language reinforce social biases; mindful word choice can reduce harm and exclusion.
    • Muted group theory highlights how dominant groups may misperceive or neglect the realities of marginalized groups, underlining the social importance of inclusive language and perspective-taking.